7DS 


A  TEACHER'S  MANUAL 

GEOGRAPHY 


CHARLES  McMURRV 


.C.Van  Lieu 


I      O 


' 


A  TEACHER'S   MANUAL 


GEOGRAPHY 


A    TEACHER'S    MAMJAI/ 


OF 


GEOGRAPHY 

TO  ACCOMPANY 
TAKE  AND  McMURRY'S  SERIES  OF  GEOGRAPHIES 

BY 

CHARLES  McMURRY,  PH.D. 


Nefo  gorfc 
THE   MACMILLAtf   COMPANY 

LONDON :  MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LTD. 
1902 

All  rights  reserved 


•  • 


M33 


COPYRIGHT,  1902, 
BY  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped  July,  1902. 

EDUCATION  DEFT. 


Norfoooti  lireas 

J.  S.  Gushing  &  Co.  -  Berwick  &  Smith 
Norwood  Mass.  U.S.A. 


HOME   GEOGKAPHY 

AND 

THE   EARTH   AS   A   WHOLE 

HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

FOR  beginners  home  geography  stands  in  sharp  contrast 
to  the  geography  of  the  world  whole  and  of  foreign  coun- 
tries. It  is  relatively  so  small.  But  a  knowledge  of  local 
geography  and  industries  furnishes  a  good  starting-point 
in  geographical  study.  It  is  difficult  for  adults  to  under- 
stand how  much  children  are  dependent  upon  things 
which  they  have  seen  in  order  to  explain  things  which 
they  cannot  see.  The  observation  of  neighborhood  facts 
must  precede  the  study  of  things  at  a  distance.  A  defi- 
nite knowledge  of  the  home  surroundings,  of  its  hills, 
streams,  landscapes,  agriculture,  manufacturing,  commerce, 
changing  seasons,  storms,  floods,  etc.,  is  necessary  as  an 
introduction  to  the  same  topics  in  the  world  abroad. 

When  we  come  to  study  the  climate,  surface,  industries, 
products,  and  commerce  of  distant  states  and  of  foreign 
countries,  our  ability  to  construct  correct  pictures  is  based 
upon  the  varied  ideas  of  similar  kind  that  we  have  gathered 
in  vivid  and  real  form  from  our  own  home  neighborhood. 
The  imagination  must  be  our  chief  helper  in  constructing 
geographical  pictures  of  things  at  a  distance  from  home, 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


•  -But'  the . '  imagination  cannot  construct  pictures  out  of 
nothing,  any  more  than  a  builder  can  construct  a  house 
without  materials.  The  imagination  works  and  builds 
with  the  materials  which  experience  has  already  gathered. 
It  is  not  expected  that  we  shall  gather  all  the  experi- 
mental facts  on  these  third  or  fourth  grade  excursions, 
but  we  can  encourage  the  children  to  keep  their  eyes  open 
and  their  minds  alert  for  this  kind  of  knowledge.  We 
can  at  least  open  the  door  to  these  varied  and  interesting 
forms  of  activity. 

Children  are  already  familiar  with  these  home  things  in 
a  vague,  loose  way,  but  we  are  inclined  to  overestimate 
the  extent  and  accuracy  of  their  knowledge.  In  some 
special  cases  they  know  enough  about  certain  local  topics 
without  help  from  the  school ;  but,  generally  speaking, 
children  have  little  accurate  knowledge  of  local  industries 
and  phenomena.  Even  the  teachers  are  found  in  many 
cases  to  be  extremely  deficient  in  definite  knowledge  about 
such  common  topics  as  local  directions  and  topography  ; 
weather  changes  ;  the  dairy,  the  cultivation  of  garden 
vegetables  and  fruits  ;  the  work  of  the  farm  in  caring  for 
crops  and  farm  animals  ;  the  tools,  machines,  and  processes 
of  the  blacksmith,  the  tinner,  the  carpenter,  and  others ; 
the  work  done  in  planing-mills,  wagon  factories,  grain 
elevators,  mills,  etc. ;  the  shipment  of  fruits,  meats,  glass- 
ware, and  iron  products  by  rail  and  by  water,  etc. 

Many  of  these  things  which  we  assume  that  teachers 
and  children  know  by  their  own  daily  observation  are 
either  not  known  at  all  or  are  not  well  understood.  If  they 
are  to  be  clearly  grasped  and  made  the  basis  of  a  real 
understanding  of  similar  topics  on  a  larger  scale,  it  can 
only  be  done  by  turning  the  children's  thoughts  definitely 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY  3 

upon  these  supposedly  familiar  topics.  They  may  be 
handled  in  such  a  way  as  to  furnish  interesting  instruc- 
tion and  to  require  genuine  effort  on  the  pupil's  part,  botk 
to  get  clear  notions  and  to  express  them  in  language  and 
drawing.  There  is  much  variety  of  surprising  knowledge 
to  be  gained  by  stepping  from  the  schoolroom  into  the 
real  world  in  order  to  see  the  different  kinds  of  workmen 
in  their  employments,  and  to  get  a  view  of  the  country 
from  the  hilltops.  This  is  especially  fitting  for  children, 
because  of  their  delight  in  these  concrete  realities.  The 
ignorance  among  so-called  intelligent  people  of  many  im- 
portant things  about  home  is  matter  for  surprise.  It  is  to 
a  large  extent  the  cause  of  that  lack  of  sympathy  and 
appreciation  among  the  well-to-do  classes  for  many  other 
people  who  are  close  about  them.  It  is  an  extremely 
faulty  training  that  allows  us  to  pass  by  many  of  these 
matters  of  human  interest  without  desire  or  effort  to 
understand  them. 

It  is  a  marked  and  justifiable  tendency  of  our  modern 
education  to  incorporate  into  the  course  of  study  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  simple  universal  trades  and  occupations  upon 
which  our  whole  state  of  culture  rests.  The  manual 
training  and  constructive  work  in  primary  and  intermedi- 
ate grades  deals  with  some  of  these  simple  occupations. 
It  is  an  extremely  practical  and  fundamental  demand  that 
children  should  be  made  acquainted  with  these  local 
affairs.  They  will  everywhere  need  them  as  a  means  of 
interpreting  social  and  physical  environment  in  all  studies 
and  throughout  life. 

Of  course  it  must  be  taken  for  granted  that  a  large  part 
of  this  knowledge  is  picked  up  by  a  child  incidentally  by 
all  sorts  of  daily  experiences.  But  to  carry  out  this  pur- 


4  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

pose  more  fully  with  beginning  classes  in  geography,  it  is 
necessary  to  conduct  a  few  excursions  to  a  number  of 
these  places  of  special  interest,  in  particular  to  those 
which  are  near  and  convenient  to  the  schoolhouse.  In 
some  cases  an  excursion  is  made  in  preparation  for  one 
of  the  topics  discussed  in  home  geography,  such  as  that 
on  soil  or  hills.  Localities  differ  greatly  in  respect  to 
the  possible  excursions  which  they  furnish,  but  almost 
any  place  will  afford  more  opportunities  for  instructive 
excursions  than  the  school  will  be  able  to  carry  out.  In 
the  springtime  an  hour's  visit  to  a  neighboring  garden 
in  which  the  seeds  of  spring  vegetables  are  being  planted 
in  the  fresh-turned  earth  will  be  instructive.  Observe 
the  manner  in  which  the  soil  is  prepared  for  planting, 
how  hotbeds  are  arranged  for  cabbage  or  tomato  plants, 
and  later  how  the  young  plants  are  transferred  to  the 
garden.  Notice  the  ploughing,  the  various  kinds  of 
vegetables  planted,  and  the  different  kinds  of  seeds  and 
ways  of  planting  them.  It  is  well  co  trace  the  growth 
and  cultivation  of  one  or  more  of  the  common  vegetables 
through  the  season,  as  cabbages,  potatoes,  and  among 
small  fruits,  blackberries  and  strawberries.  The  interest 
thus  awakened  in  the  children  will  cause  them  to  watch 
their  own  gardens  more  closely,  and  perhaps  the  neigh- 
boring gardens,  and  report  in  class  the  facts  observed. 
Where  the  school  grounds  are  large  enough,  a  small 
space  is  sometimes  spaded  up  and  used  as  a  school 
garden.  A  single  excursion  to  a  garden  for  three 
quarters  of  an  hour  furnishes  valuable  material  for  dis- 
cussion in  one  or  more  lessons.  The  next  day's  lesson 
in  geography  should  require  a  full  statement  of  the 
things  observed  on  the  previous  day's  excursion.  Some- 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY  5 

times  drawings  of  the  vegetables  or  plants  furnish  good 
exercises.  It  is  a  matter  of  interest  for  the  children  to 
make  a  list  of  all  the  garden  vegetables  raised  in  the 
neighborhood,  such  as  cabbages,  onions,  beets,  cauliflower, 
egg-plant,  carrots,  etc.  The  small  fruits  may  be  studied 
and  listed  in  the  same  way. 

At  another  time  an  excursion  may  be  made  to  some 
frame  house  in  process  of  construction ;  the  various 
materials,  as  brick,  stone,  sand,  lime,  and  lumber  are 
noticed,  and  also  the  work  and  tools  of  the  workmen. 
Where  do  the  builders  get  these  materials  (lumber-yard, 
planing-mill,  sand-pit,  brick-yard,  quarry,  hardware 
store,  etc.)  ?  As  the  frame  goes  up  notice  the  joists 
and  studding,  the  sheeting  and  siding,  the  rafters  and 
shingles,  the  matched  flooring,  the  windows  and  door- 
frames, and  other  distinctive  parts  of  the  construction. 
Drawing  lessons  on  the  plan  of  the  foundation,  frame- 
work, and  elevations  may  be  assigned.  The  thoughtful 
working  over  of  this  excursion  in  the  class  clears  up 
the  ideas  and  gives  a  mastery  of  the  simpler  forms  of 
construction.  A  second  excursion,  when  the  building 
is  under  roof  and  the  interior  finish  is  being  placed, 
will  show  the  different  kinds  of  mill-work  and  finishing 
lumber  used  (hardwood  floors,  casings,  mantels,  cup- 
boards, gas-fixtures,  ornamental  carving,  or  frescoes). 

In  a  lesson  like  this  children  may  see  how  different 
classes  of  workmen  assist  each  other  and  depend  upon 
one  another,  —  as  carpenters,  masons,  plasterers,  plumbers, 
painters,  tinners,  etc.  Indeed,  it  is  well  to  make  a  list 
of  all  the  different  kinds  of  men  and  labor  necessary 
to  the  building  of  a  common  house.  When  we  add  to 
this  the  stores  and  shops  and  lumber-yards  which  furnish 


6  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

the  material,  we  see  how  many  people  are  engaged 
directly  or  indirectly  in  house-building. 

It  seems  advisable  also,  in  some  cases,  to  reach  out 
beyond  the  home  neighborhood  and  to  explain  where 
the  pine  lumber  comes  from,  where  the  brick  is  made, 
or  the  stone  obtained  from  a  quarry.  In  this  connection 
it  is  necessary  to  establish  the  cardinal  points  of  the 
compass  and  to  use  some  kind  of  a  map  to  show  the 
location  of  the  surrounding  districts  or  states.  It  will 
be  better  for  the  teacher  in  such  a  case  to  sketch  the 
map  upon  the  board,  as  children  have  but  little  power 
at  first  to  explain  maps. 

The  teacher  needs  to  exercise  good  control  of  children 
upon  an  excursion,  and  to  direct  their  attention  to  the 
chief  points  of  observation.  The  children  will  be  found 
to  be  very  careless  and  inaccurate  in  their  observations 
and  descriptions.  Even  with  this  objective  material 
before  them  they  need  to  be  taught  how  to  observe  and 
to  describe  correctly.  An  excursion  needs  to  be  as  well 
planned  as  any  lesson.  The  teacher  should  have  visited 
the  place  beforehand  and  have  laid  out  the  scheme  of 
observation.  Most  teachers  find  such  excursions  trying 
upon  the  nerves  on  account  of  the  playful  dispositions 
of  the  children  and  their  tendency  to  scatter  and  to 
romp.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  for  the  teacher  to  form 
a  careful  plan  and  act  with  prompt  decision  in  cases  of 
disorder.  To  compensate  for  this  greater  freedom  in 
the  open  air  the  teacher  will  find  a  means  of  closer  sym- 
pathy with  children  and  a  better  insight  into  their 
individualities. 

The  broadening  of  the  teacher's  knowledge  of  practical 
affairs  is  also  a  thing  worth  mentioning.  Such  excursions 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY  7 

to  the  woods,  streams,  hilltops,  gardens,  quarries,  parks, 
stores,  factories,  public  buildings,  wharves,  shops,  freight 
houses,  and  mills  will  bring  the  teacher  into  contact  with 
the  great  world  of  realities  outside  of  schools  and  books 
in  a  most  interesting  and  instructive  manner.  It  will 
qualify  the  teacher  in  many  practical  ways  to  be  a  real 
instructor.  In  most  cases  the  teacher  will  find  that  he 
will  be  treated  with  kindness  and  full  consideration  by 
those  who  have  charge  of  the  places  visited. 

Even  if  only  a  few  such  excursions  can  be  made  in  a 
year,  they  are  valuable  in  suggesting  to  the  children  the 
advantages  of  such  observations.  Moreover  the  experience 
of  children  at  other  times  in  their  walks  and  journeys  can 
be  drawn  on  to  enrich  home  geography  even  when  no 
excursions  are  taken.  In  fact,  one  of  the  best  results  on 
the  part  of  the  children  is  a  readiness  to  observe  and 
report  things  seen  in  the  surrounding  neighborhood. 
What  the  children  have  picked  up  in  their  various  home 
and  neighborhood  experience,  if  properly  used,  will  greatly 
aid  the  work  of  recitations. 

In  discussing  an  excursion  after  returning  to  the  school, 
the  teacher  can  do  a  great  deal  to  clear  up  the  ideas  gained 
by  observation.  At  this  point  the  teacher  needs  to  develop 
real  skill.  Children  upon  an  excursion  see  things  in  a 
fragmentary  and  unconnected  way,  and  their  real  insight 
into  the  meaning  of  things  seen  rests  upon  the  teacher's 
skill  in  showing  the  connection  of  the  parts.  In  a  factory 
or  planing-mill,  for  example,  the  power  that  drives  the 
machines  is  not  observed  by  the  children  and  they  do  not 
understand  how  a  steam-engine  in  a  separate  room  can 
drive  machines  at  a  distance.  For  the  sake  of  safety  and 
for  other  reasons  parts  of  the  machinery  are  concealed  so 


8  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

that  a  crude  drawing  may  be  necessary  to  show  in  brief 
how  the  whole  machine  operates,  as  in  case  of  the  band 
saw  or  the  lifting  of  grain  in  a  grain  elevator,  or  the 
work  of  a  turbine  wheel  in  a  mill.  If  the  teacher  draw 
the  objects,  machines,  and  processes  in  connection  with 
these  observations,  he  has  an  excellent  means  of  giving 
vividness  to  the  children's  observations.  The  children 
also  should  be  encouraged  to  this  graphic  expression  of 
their  thought.  In  visiting  fields,  forests,  shops,  and 
factories  many  objects  will  be  more  clearly  formed  in 
the  mind  if  this  practice  of  sketching  and  blackboard 
explanation  is  frequently  resorted  to, — not  aesthetic  draw- 
ing, but  mere  sketching,  diagramming,  and  picturing  of 
objects  in  a  crude  way.  The  regular  drawing  lessons  of 
the  school  can  do  nothing  better,  at  this  stage,  than  to 
prepare  children  for  greater  skill  in  this  kind  of  draw- 
ing. It  may  be  well  also  in  the  drawing  lessons  to  take 
some  of  these  objects  for  more  accurate  reproduction. 

It  is  evident  that  the  teacher  needs  to  acquire  much 
facility  in  making  sketches,  diagrams,  and  pictures.  Next 
to  direct  observation  itself  this  is  the  concretest  mode  of 
teaching.  It  will  also  find  quick  and  natural  imitation 
among  the  children,  and  is  a  mode  of  expression  to  which 
they  are  accustomed  from  the  start.  The  time  spent  upon 
such  drawings  need  not  be  great,  but  it  puts  the  children 
to  severe  tests  in  fixing  the  form  of  objects,  and  in  express- 
ing sharply  their  ideas.  Oftentimes  this  is  a  far  quicker 
mode  of  explaining  objects  and  processes  than  verbal 
statements.  A  free  use  of  the  blackboard  by  teacher  and 
pupils  is  invaluable. 

In  what  order  these  excursions  take  place  is  not  a  mat- 
ter of  great  importance.  This  will  depend  upon  the  sea- 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY  9 

son  and  upon  the  local  surroundings,  and  upon  the  series 
of  topics  worked  out  in  the  regular  text-book.  May  and 
June,  September  and  October,  are  good  months  for  visiting 
gardens  and  farms,  and  for  outdoor  excursions  to  observe 
the  creeks,  slopes,  hills  and  valleys,  soils,  and  other  physi- 
cal features.  Excursions  to  shops  and  factories  can  be 
made  at  almost  any  time  of  the  year  when  the  weather  is 
good.  Oftentimes  an  excursion  can  be  made  from  the 
school  to  some  store  or  shop  only  a  few  blocks  away,  and 
the  children  returned  to  the  school  at  the  end  of  thirty  or 
forty  minutes.  Sometimes  it  is  better  to  take  the  last 
hour  of  the  day's  programme  for  the  excursion,  and  send 
the  children  home  at  its  close.  The  author  has  occasion- 
ally taken  a  class  of  twenty  or  thirty  children  two  or  three 
miles  on  the  street-car  to  visit  a  park  or  a  court-house  or 
a  factory. 

It  should  always  be  kept  in  mind  that  there  are  dangers 
connected  with  visiting  factories  and  workshops.  Great 
precaution  is  necessary.  A  single  accident  would  outbal- 
ance a  great  amount  of  good.  The  teacher  should  be  very 
watchful  and  decisive  in  preventing  such  accidents.  In 
mills  and  shops,  where  machinery  is  used,  it  is  better  not 
to  take  more  than  twelve  or  fifteen  children,  and  to  look 
out  closely  for  their  safety.  It  is  better  to  warn  the  chil- 
dren beforehand,  and  be  very  watchful  while  with  them. 
Even  in  excursions,  where  no  danger  is  present,  the 
teacher  should  be  very  careful  not  to  overexcite  or  over- 
strain the  children.  In  climbing  stairs  to  get  to  a  high 
point,  in  visiting  strange  places,  especially  where  there  is 
the  noise  and  rattle  of  machinery,  some  children  become 
timid  and  nervous,  and  should  be  treated  with  kindest 
consideration. 


10  HOME  GEOGEAPHY 

When  the  parents  are  interested  and  visit  the  school,  it 
might  be  well  to  invite  one  or  more  of  them  to  go  with  the 
teachers  and  children  upon  some  of  these  excursions.  It 
is  very  desirable  that  parents  should  learn  to  do  this  for 
themselves,  and  to  form  the  habit  of  visiting  places  of  in- 
terest with  their  children.  Parents  could  be  of  much  aid 
to  the  teacher  upon  excursions,  in  caring  for  the  children, 
in  explaining  difficulties,  and  in  getting  them  safely  home 
again.  It  will  awaken  the  interest  of  parents  to  see  what 
use  is  made  of  these  excursions  in  the  later  instruction. 
By  inviting  parents  to  join  in  this,  it  may  be  possible  to 
awaken  a  greater  appreciation  for  this  kind  of  school  work 
and  thus  bring  it  more  easily  into  vogue. 

Parents  generally  do  not  see  the  value  of  excursions. 
They  are  disposed  to  think  that  children  are  better  em- 
ployed at  their  books.  They  do  not  understand  that  the 
real  insight  of  children  depends  upon  the  number  of 
things  in  the  world  about  them  which  they  have  seen  and 
understood.  A  meeting  of  parents  to  discuss  the  value 
of  excursions  would  be  helpful.  The  principal  reasons 
for  such  trips  could  be  presented,  and  illustrations  given 
showing  their  educational  significance. 

The  problem  of  interpreting  maps  and  of  map-making 
is  one  of  the  chief  difficulties  in  the  first  year  of  geograph- 
ical study.  The  excursions  with  children  to  high  points 
of  observation,  either  hilltops  or  high  buildings,  furnish 
the  indispensable  material  for  a  map  of  the  neighborhood. 
The  previous  experiences  of  the  children  in  walks  about 
the  home  are  equally  valuable  as  preparation.  In  some 
cases  the  school  campus  and  the  tower  of  the  schoolhouse 
(as  described  in  the  excursion  to  this  lookout)  give  the 
best  starting  for  school  work  in  map-making.  While 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY  11 

upon  the  excursion  the  children  point  out  and  locate 
objects  according  to  north,  south,  east,  and  west.  Upon 
returning  to  the  schoolroom  the  teacher,  after  collecting 
the  children  about  him  and  laying  a  large  piece  of  paper 
upon  the  floor,  can  reproduce  in  a  map,  of  which  the 
school  campus  forms  the  centre,  the  relative  position  of 
the  different  objects  in  the  neighborhood.  The  four 
directions  correspond  exactly  to  those  given  in  the  excur- 
sion. In  the  first  drawing  it  is  not  necessary  to  make  this 
map  upon  a  definite  scale.  If  the  teacher  hangs  this  map 
upon  the  wall,  he  can  easily  show  the  children  how  to  in- 
terpret the  directions  correctly,  no  matter  on  which  side 
of  the  room  it  is  hung.  Some  practice  in  repetition,  how- 
ever, will  be  necessary  to  overcome  this  difficulty.  Such 
a  map  is  usually  made  upon  a  flat  surface,  and  does  not 
help  children  to  image  irregularities,  such  as  hills  and  val- 
leys. To  bring  out  this  idea  of  relief  it  is  well  to  make  a 
sand  map  of  the  campus,  or  of  some  limited  district  which 
can  be  overlooked  by  the  children.  After  making  an  ex- 
cursion along  the  creek  and  slopes,  or  to  a  hilltop,  with 
special  reference  to  differences  in  elevation,  valley  slopes, 
and  drainage,  the  sand  map  can  be  made.  These  varia- 
tions can  be  better  seen  in  walking  about  the  country  than 
from  some  high  point  of  view.  It  is  well,  however,  to 
trace  the  course  of  a  river  valley  in  both  directions,  with 
its  smaller  tributary  creeks  and  their  smaller  valleys,  thus 
getting  the  general  slope  of  the  country  with  its  local 
variations.  Of  course  such  ideas  will  not  come  to  full 
clearness  from  a  single  map,  nor  from  two  or  three  lessons. 
In  connection  with  the  various  excursions,  these  ideas  of 
distance  and  elevation  will  be  repeated  and  cleared  up. 
It  is  generally  possible  to  survey  a  district  of  country  ten 


12  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

or  fifteen  miles  in  diameter  from  some  high  point  of  view. 
On  the  basis  of  such  observations  it  is  well  to  make  a  map 
upon  a  scale  of  perhaps  an  inch  to  a  mile.  It  includes  the 
railroads,  three  or  four  principal  wagon-roads,  and  perhaps 
two  or  three  neighboring  villages,  and  the  more  extended 
course  of  creek  or  river.  Such  maps  should  be  made  care- 
fully by  each  child.  In  connection  with  this  may  be 
shown  a  map  of  the  township  and  of  the  county  with  which 
the  children  are  more  or  less  familiar. 

The  greatest  difficulty  is  found  in  introducing  children 
to  definite  ideas  of  distance  and  topography  for  whole 
states  and  larger  areas.  In  discussing  products,  such  as 
lumber,  groceries,  fruits,  coal,  brick,  building  stone,  etc., 
and  in  pointing  out  the  sources  from  which  they  are 
brought  to  us,  it  is  advantageous  to  use  a  larger  map  of 
the  state  and  of  neighboring  states  to  locate  definitely 
these  regions.  In  order  to  give  as  much  clearness  and 
definiteness  as  possible  to  the  ideas  of  distance,  area,  etc., 
it  is  necessary  to  fall  back  upon  the  previous  experiences 
and  travels  of  the  children.  They  are  familiar  with  rail- 
road travel  for  short  distances.  The  time  required  to 
travel  over  these  distances,  by  wagon  or  in  buggies  and 
also  upon  the  cars,  may  help  the  children  to  form  more 
definite  ideas.  The  time  required  by  them  in  going  to 
the  neighboring  villages  and  towns  should  be  used  fre- 
quently as  a  basis  of  comparisons.  Also  the  journeys  by 
rail  to  larger  cities,  at  a  greater  distance.  The  time  taken 
formerly  by  stage-coaches  and  by  the  earlier  settlers  in 
travelling,  and  the  difficulty  and  hardships  of  such  jour- 
neys, will  also  help  the  children  to  form  clearer  notions. 
It  is  not  likely  that  any  teacher  will  overdo  this  effort  to 
concrete  these  geographical  notions  of  distance  and  space. 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY  13 

It  must  not  be  expected  that  children  in  school  will  be 
able  to  get  as  clear  and  accurate  notions  of  surface,  dis- 
tance, and  the  various  forms  of  land  and  water  as  the 
adult  who  has  travelled  much  and  seen  many  varieties  of 
country.  All  of  these  geographical  concepts  grow  gradu- 
ally with  experience. 

In  dealing  with  larger  areas  of  country,  maps  which  give 
a  bird's-eye  view  of  extensive  regions,  such  as  some  of  the 
railroad  maps  and  guides,  are  quite  helpful.  They  form 
a  good  transition  from  the  flat  map  to  the  relief  map. 
They  need  to  be  studied  and  discussed  in  the  class,  as  do 
all  maps,  so  as  to  correct  false  notions  and  give  greater 
clearness.  The  relief  maps  found  in  the  geographies  and 
large  wall  relief  maps  are  helpful  in  giving  general,  ap- 
proximately correct  notions,  but  they  need  to  be  discussed 
and  explained  to  avoid  serious  error.  Good  pictures  of 
broad  landscapes  of  valleys  and  of  mountains  greatly 
assist  the  children  in  forming  definite  ideas.  The  pictures 
of  maps  given  on  pages  106  and  107  of  the  Home  Geog- 
raphy illustrate  the  connection  between  pictures  and  maps, 
and  many  of  the  pictures  through  the  First  Book  of  the 
geography  can  be  used  to  great  advantage  when  it  is  nec- 
essary, in  different  topics,  to  illustrate  the  varieties  of 
surface.  The  constant  appeal  by  the  teacher  to  familiar 
standards  of  measurement,  as  the  foot,  yard,  and  mile,  or 
the  block,  section,  and  township,  and  to  heights  as  meas- 
ured upon  steeples,  buildings,  chimneys,  watch-towers, 
and  hills,  will  enable  the  teacher  to  correct  many  false 
notions,  and  at  the  same  time  give  a  degree  of  concrete- 
ness  and  reality  to  the  instruction. 

The  home  geography,  as  indicated  above,  should  often 
reach  out  into  the  neighboring  parts  of  our  own  state,  and 


14  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

into  other  states,  and  even  into  the  distant  parts  of  North 
America,  showing  from  what  sources  fruits,  coal,  lumber, 
iron,  sugar,  salt,  and  many  other  products  come.  This  is 
a  natural  and  excellent  means  of  gradually  extending  their 
geographical  experience  beyond  home.  The  grocery  or 
fruit  store,  the  hardware  and  tin  shop,  the  lumber-yard,  the 
shoe  or  wagon  factory,  point  to  other  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, from  which  they  derive  their  material.  The  map 
of  the  United  States,  and  even  of  the  whole  world,  will  be 
needed,  at  various  times,  in  tracing  out  the  sources  of 
common  necessities  and  staple  products  used  in  our  own 
neighborhood.  As  pointed  out  before,  in  all  these  efforts 
to  interpret  maps,  sufficient  time  must  be  taken  to  get  at 
the  primary  conceptions  of  map-making.  We  must  use  the 
crudest  forms  of  illustration,  such  as  the  making  of  maps 
on  the  floor,  quick  blackboard  sketches,  etc.,  so  that  the 
objects  and  relations  are  clearly  manifest  to  the  children. 
This  time  is  well  spent  in  forming  a  sure  basis  for  all 
future  globe  and  map  studies. 

The  observation  of  seasonal  changes,  the  varying  length 
of  day  and  night,  of  the  position  and  apparent  movement 
of  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  may  be  carried  on  in  any 
locality,  and  is  a  good  preparation  for  later  topics  in  phys- 
ical and  mathematical  geography.  The  climatic  changes 
connected  with  the  successive  seasons,  the  winds  and 
storms,  frost  and  ice,  and  their  effect  upon  vegetation  and 
animal  life,  are  of  great  value  in  studying  climatic  condi- 
tions and  their  effects  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  We 
sometimes  forget  that  these  grand  object  lessons,  some  of 
them  the  most  beautiful  and  imposing,  belong  directly  to 
the  child's  home  and  are  part  of  his  own  experience. 
They  all  involve  problems  too  difficult  for  a  child  to  un- 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY  15 

derstand,  but  the  simpler  and  more  manifest  phases  of 
these  phenomena  should  be  carefully  studied  as  an  A  B  C 
to  the  larger  geographical  world  which  he  must  learn  to 
grasp  and  interpret.  Even  within  the  first  year's  study 
these  topics,  bearing  upon  the  world  as  a  whole,  will 
demand  a  brief  treatment,  and  it  will  be  necessary  for  the 
teacher  to  make  use  of  all  the  child's  experience  about 
home  to  give  him  even  a  meagre  and  approximate  view  of 
the  world  as  a  whole,  of  the  continents  and  oceans,  etc. 

Another  topic  which  involves  more  or  less  difficulty 
throughout  the  school  course,  on  account  of  its  abstract 
nature,  is  government.  This  is  a  subject  that  is  capable 
of  concrete  illustration  in  the  home  neighborhood.  The 
local  government  of  the  city,  the  town  council  and  offi- 
cials, with  their  duties  and  mode  of  election,  the  police, 
the  jail  and  treatment  of  offenders  against  law,  local  taxes 
and  the  uses  to  which  they  are  put  for  streets,  water 
supply,  schools,  etc.,  the  popular  modes  of  lawmaking, — 
all  these  phases  of  self-government  can  be  observed  and 
understood  by  the  children  in  nearly  every  community. 
They  may  know  some  of  the  people  who  serve  as  local 
magistrates  and  the  duties  they  perform,  or  by  a  little 
discussion  in  the  school  they  can  be  made  well  acquainted 
with  these  facts.  Even  the  relations  of  the  national  govern- 
ment to  the  smaller  place  can  be  definitely  studied  in  con- 
nection with  the  post-office  and  postmaster,  with  bank 
examiners  and  the  national  banks,  and  oftentimes  in  con- 
nection with  representatives  and  judges  who  are  under 
the  federal  rather  than  the  state  authority. 

A  few  lessons  upon  the  mode  of  assessing  and  collecting 
taxes,  and  on  the  various  uses  of  the  money  for  paving  the 
streets,  building  bridges,  providing  for  the  fire  and  police 


16  HOME  GEOGRAPPIT 

departments,  building  schoolhouses,  etc.,  are  both  inter- 
esting and  instructive  to  children.  One  reason  for  this 
is  the  fact  that  all  these  things  are  familiar  to  their  own 
eyes,  and  acquire  in  this  way  a  fresh  and  more  definite 
meaning. 

When  we  come  to  compare  later  the  departments  of  the 
state  government  and  of  the  national  government  with  that 
which  is  local  in  our  own  neighborhood,  we  shall  find  on 
a  larger  scale  exactly  the  same  things  as  in  local  govern- 
ment, the  executive,  the  legislative,  and  the  judicial.  It 
would  seem  to  be  possible  in  this  way  to  remove  some  of 
that  haziness  and  indefinable  abstractness  which  mark 
the  ideas  of  most  grammar  school  boys  and  girls  on 
government.  In  this  connection  a  visit  to  the  court-house 
and  to  the  rooms  where  cases  are  tried  or  where  the  docu- 
ments, such  as  deeds  for  all  the  property  in  the  county, 
are  recorded  and  preserved,  and  where  the  various  officers, 
of  the  county  have  their  rooms  and  transact  business,  is 
very  profitable.  Several  lessons  in  the  schoolroom  may 
be  given  to  the  elaboration  of  the  things  observed  on 
such  a  visit. 

The  three  important  topics,  included  under  building 
materials,  clothing,  and  food  products,  embrace  a  large 
number  of  lessons  upon  the  various  common  necessities 
and  occupations  of  men.  They  are  of  special  value  in 
the  later  study  of  geography  because  they  deal  with  those 
trades  and  occupations  which  are  common  in  every  civ- 
ilized and  semicivilized  country  of  the  world.  The  car- 
penter, the  mason,  the  shoemaker,  the  tailor,  the  farmer, 
the  miller,  the  blacksmith,  the  baker,  the  shepherd,  the 
grocer,  the  weaver,  are  found  in  every  locality,  almost  in 
every  part  of  the  civilized  world.  A  study  of  these  local 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY  17 

trades  and  occupations  in  our  own  community  helps  to 
make  a  child,  in  this  way,  a  citizen  of  the  world,  and  puts 
him  into  sympathetic  relations  with  the  simple,  primitive 
industries  of  men  everywhere. 

We  will  cite  a  few  examples.  In  connection  with 
building  materials  he  may  study,  not  only  a  house  in  pro- 
cess of  building  (as  shown  above),  but  the  lumber-yard, 
the  brick-yard,  and  stone  quarry,  the  carpenter  shop,  the 
sawmill,  and  the  planing-mill,  besides  other  common 
sources  from  which  the  material  is  drawn.  If  it  is  pos- 
sible for  the  children  to  make  an  excursion  to  the  carpet 
weavers,  they  will  see,  in  its  simplest,  crudest,  and  most 
easily  understood  form,  that  process  of  weaving  which  is 
common  to  all  the  great  textile  industries  in  all  lands. 
Where  opportunity  offers,  it  is  of  great  interest  to  chil- 
dren to  visit  a  pottery  and  observe  the  potter's  wheel,  and 
the  skill  of  the  potter  in  shaping  vases  from  the  crude 
clay.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  manual  training  depart- 
ment will  soon  supply  this  deficiency  in  many  schools. 

A  large  city  requires  a  different  treatment  of  local 
geography  from  that  of  a  village  or  country  place.  A 
city  like  New  York  or  Chicago  is  so  complex  and  vast 
in  area  that  it  takes  much  time,  study,  and  discussion  to 
understand  even  the  simple  phases  of  its  life  and  occu- 
pations. On  account  of  the  numerous  kinds  of  business, 
trade,  and  sight-seeing  in  a  big  city,  it  is  necessary  to  pick 
out  those  topics  that  can  be  treated  from  a  simple  point  of 
view.  Bulky  products  like  lumber,  grain,  iron,  and  fruits 
can  be  studied  to  much  better  advantages  than  difficult, 
refined,  and  complex  processes  like  the  weaving  and  dye- 
ing of  textile  fabrics,  the  manufacture  of  fine  pottery  and 
silverware,  watchmaking,  and  the  construction  of  complex 


18  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

machinery,  engines,  microscopes,  etc.  Children  cannot 
visit  great  manufacturing  establishments  to  good  advan- 
tage, especially  those  which  present  an  intricate  series  of 
processes,  executed  by  machinery.  Children  can  under- 
stand a  sawmill,  a  blast  furnace,  a  brick  kiln,  a  foundry 
where  simple  castings  are  made,  or  even  a  rolling-mill; 
but  in  most  cases  it  is  better  to  visit  a  small  blacksmith 
shop,  a  carpenter's  shop,  a  schooner  unloading,  a  carpet 
weaver's,  a  park,  the  seashore,  a  grocery  or  fruit  store,  a 
small  job  printing  establishment,  a  baker's,  a  grain  eleva- 
tor, a  truck  garden,  a  bridge,  a  canal  boat,  an  ocean 
steamer,  a  fish  market,  a  monument,  a  freight  house,  a 
shoemaker's,  a  basket-maker's,  a  cooper  shop,  a  lumber- 
yard, a  shipping  dock,  in  short,  some  easily  grasped  whole. 
Jf  a  map  of  the  city  is  studied,  it  should  be  simple,  giving 
only  a  few  streets  and  leading  sections,  and  locating  a  few 
striking  points. 

Even  if  we  limit  ourselves  to  the  simpler,  more  promi- 
nent and  important  topics,  it  will  require  much  more 
time  to  compass  the  home  geography  of  a  city  than  of 
a  country  place.  A  whole  year  in  third  or  fourth  grade 
may  be  profitably  spent  upon  the  home  geography  of  a 
large  city,  especially  if  we  follow  up  the  connections  with 
the  adjacent  regions.  To  some  extent  this  should  be 
done,  and  the  sources  of  large  staple  products,  like  lum- 
ber, iron,  fruits,  cotton,  dairy  products,  vegetables,  grains, 
etc.,  should  be  traced  out  on  a  larger  map  of  the  United 
States. 

Nearly  every  town  or  city  has  some  special  local  indus- 
tries worthy  of  study,  such  as  wagon-works,  or  a  cooper 
shop,  or  shoe  factory,  or  glass-works,  or  foundry,  or  basket 
factory,  which  are  deserving  of  careful  study  upon  ex- 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY  19 

cursions.  In  our  day,  when  we  talk  so  much  of  the  social 
function  of  the  school,  it  is  well  to  note  the  social  value 
of  such  studies.  In  them  it  is  easy  for  children  to  see 
the  complete  dependence  of  different  occupations  and 
trades  upon  one  another,  and  how  necessary  it  is  for 
people  to  work  together  in  harmony.  They  will  also 
learn  something  of  the  hours  of  labor  and  wages  of  labor- 
ing men,  and  of  the  value  of  expert  skill  in  workmen. 
The  significance  of  machines,  of  mechanical  inventions  for 
accomplishing  the  greatest  amount  of  work  with  the  least 
expense,  is  noted. 

It  is  difficult  to  see  how  children  could  be  trained  in  a 
better  way  than  this  to  spell  out  later  the  great  problems 
of  social  life. 

In  close  relation  to  these  topics  stands  that  of  local 
commerce,  roads,  and  bridges.  The  chief  wagon  roads 
by  which  the  farmers,  gardeners,  dairymen,  quarrymen, 
wood-cutters,  and  fruit-growers  bring  their  produce  to 
market  are  pointed  out,  and  are  also  worked  into  those 
local  maps  which  have  been  described.  The  farmers  and 
others,  with  the  profits  gained  by  the  sale  of  their  prod- 
ucts, buy  such  things  as  they  need  in  the  stores.  The 
idea  of  the  town  as  a  trade  centre  for  receiving  raw 
products  from  the  surrounding  country,  and,  in  return, 
for  distributing  clothing,  groceries,  machines,  and  other 
things  to  the  farmers,  is  understood.  The  railroad  lines 
to  the  neighboring  towns,  the  freight  houses,  the  ele- 
vators, and  other  places  of  shipment,  with  the  products 
they  send  out  and  receive,  will  still  further  enlarge  the 
children's  idea  of  a  town  as  a  trade  centre.  If  the  town 
in  which  the  children  live  is  a  county  seat  it  becomes,  at 
the  same  time,  a  centre  of  government  arid  trade.  Most 


20  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

children  in  the  rural  .districts  and  villages  all  over  the 
country  are  familiar  with  the  county  seat  or  county  town, 
where  people  congregate  for  various  causes,  and  it  would 
be  advisable  in  these  places  to  give  a  few  lessons  to  the 
study  of  such  a  place. 

If  the  town  lies  upon  a  navigable  river  or  canal,  some 
attention  should  be  given  the  trade  by  water,  explain- 
ing boats  arid  their  cargoes  and  modes  of  propulsion.  It 
is  quite  evident  that  in  discussing  local  commerce  in  con- 
crete forms  children  may  get  a  clear  notion  which  will  be 
a  means  of  quick  interpretation  of  many  later  geographical 
topics. 

The  geography  material  treated  in  home  geography 
falls  into  a  few  large,  distinct  topics,  and  these  again  into 
smaller  units,  each  capable  of  a  connected  treatment.  In 
every  topic  which  is  handled  with  children  there  should 
be  a  simple  sequence  of  connected  ideas.  This  is  true 
even  of  the  excursions  which  are  made  to  the  open 
country,  to  the  woods,  to  a  shop  or  factory.  The  purpose 
of  the  excursion,  and  of  the  school  lessons  which  follow 
it,  centres  in  a  single  idea.  It  may  be  to  trace  the  course 
of  a  brook  and  see  what  service  it  supplies  for  drainage  in 
time  of  floods,  for  water  supply,  and  for  beauty  of  scenery. 
A  shoe  factory  reveals  the  process  by  which  raw  material 
is  worked  up  into  shoes  and  prepared  for  the  market. 
A  fruit  store  is  a  centre  into  which  fruits  are  brought 
from  all  parts  of  the  world  and  sold  out  to  consumers. 
Most  of  these  topics  contain  each  a  natural  unit  of  thought, 
based  upon  the  actual  surroundings  and  conditions  of  life. 
The  dairyman,  for  example,  has  the  process  of  butter- 
making,  and  is  dependent  upon  the  farms  for  the  supply 
of  milk  and  upon  shippers  and  consumers  for  the  disposal 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY  21 

of  his  product.  Everything  is  causally  conditioned,  and 
the  child  can  see  the  reasons  and  trace  this  line  of  causes 
through  an  industr}^.  This  means,  of  course,  that  the 
teacher  must  have  first  solved  the  riddle,  that  is,  the 
problem  which  each  tradesman  is  compelled  to  work  out. 
This  demands  of  the  teacher  a  sharp  observation  and  an 
ability  to  trace  causes  and  effects  ;  in  short,  a  clear  and 
comprehensive  analysis  beforehand  of  the  materials.  Chil- 
dren can  also  acquire  this  close  connection  of  thought  and 
the  power  to  express  themselves  coherently  in  longer 
sequences.  The  fragmentary  and  conglomerate  character 
of  much  geography  study  is  a  point  of  criticism.  Chil- 
dren can  fully  appreciate  connected  thinking  if  they  are 
put  on  the  right  sequences  with  familiar  objects  as  a  basis 
of  thought.  For  example,  to  trace  the  coal  from  the 
chambers  in  the  mine  to  the  factory  or  schoolhouse  where 
it  is  used  is  entirely  within  the  grasp  of  children  ;  or  to 
follow  the  pine  tree  in  northern  Wisconsin  to  its  use  as 
lumber  in  a  house  in  our  town  ;  or  bananas  from  a  planta- 
tion in  Jamaica  to  a  grocery  in  a  suburb  of  Chicago. 
Moreover,  these  are  the  same  sequences  that  real  life,  in 
its  necessary  adaptations  to  surrounding  conditions,  im- 
poses. Such  a  sequence,  clearly  traced  out  and  under- 
stood, is  a  sure  basis  of  a  connected,  independent  narrative 
on  the  part  of  the  pupil.  Trace  these  topics  out  also  on 
the  map.  Along  the  line  of  these  important  sequences 
most  of  the  children's  own  observations  may  be  ranged, 
and  thus  they  may  be  saved  from  that  loose,  incoherent 
collection  of  facts  and  experiences  in  which  oral  discus- 
sions are  apt  to  run  to  waste. 

As  already  stated  (p.  20),  the  topics  treated  in  the  home 
geography  are  large  units  of  instruction,  each  worked  out 


22  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

in  a  connected  series  of  points.  At  the  same  time,  by 
means  of  pictures  and  illustrations,  these  topics  are  ren- 
dered concrete  arid  interesting.  But  the  text,  the  pic- 
tures, and  the  detailed  descriptions  are  designed  to  work 
out  together  this  series  of  ideas  in  a  single  unit  of  thought. 
The  review  questions  also  and  suggestions  for  teachers  are 
intended  to  collect  other  concrete  knowledge  gained  by 
the  children  around  the  central  topics  of  instruction.  The 
excursions  into  the  home  neighborhood  of  which  we  have 
spoken  will  serve  to  concentrate  a  still  greater  amount  of 
experience  and  observation  upon  the  central  topics  treated 
in  the  book.  It  can  be  easily  seen,  for  example,  that  the 
excursions  to  shops,  factories,  and  stores,  together  with  the 
study  of  the  home  town  as  the  centre  of  trade,  contributes 
directly  to  the  great  topic  of  industry  and  commerce 
treated  in  the  book.  In  like  manner  the  topic  on  govern- 
ment, necessarily  somewhat  abstract  in  its  book  treatment, 
will  receive  from  the  topics  of  local  town  government  and 
county  government  many  concrete  details  which  will  give 
to  it  added  significance. 

The  large  topics  on  surface  features,  as  soil,  hills,  val- 
leys, rivers,  ponds,  and  lakes,  in  the  First  Book,  will 
receive  particular  illustration  in  many  ways  from  the 
excursions  into  the  home  neighborhood.  The  observa- 
tion of  local  weather  conditions,  winds,  storms,  tempera- 
ture and  seasonal  changes,  will  add  substance  and  interest 
to  the  topics  which  are  treated  in  the  First  Book  under 
the  subject  of  air.  We  may  observe  also  that  the  excur- 
sions for  working  out  the  local  maps  will  serve  well  as  an 
introduction  to  the  book  chapter  on  maps.  In  these  vari- 
ous ways  we  are  able  to  observe  the  numerous  and  impor- 
tant applications  of  home-bred  knowledge  to  the  process 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY  23 

of  acquiring  primary  geographical  concepts.  In  some 
cases  it  is  well  to  begin  the  study  of  a  topic  with  the 
treatment  in  the  book,  and  to  insert  the  local  excursions 
and  discussions  where  they  are  most  needed.  In  other 
cases  the  local  observations  will  be  a  good  introduction 
to  the  whole  topic.  At  the  close  of  this  chapter  we  will 
indicate  more  in  detail  how  some  of  the  topics  in  the  book 
can  be  enriched  by  particular  local  observation. 

In  some  respects  the  incorporation  of  this  local  home 
knowledge  into  geographical  topics  is  more  important 
even  than  the  logical  sequence  in  the  treatment  of  topics. 
But  it  really  strengthens  the  idea  of  logical  order  and 
connection.  It  is  impossible  to  secure  such  a  close  se- 
quence of  ideas  in  topics  unless  some  large,  important  con- 
cept is  under  consideration,  and  unless  one  enters  somewhat 
fully  into  the  concrete  details  of  its  treatment.  The  con- 
cept is  necessarily  comprehensive  and  abstract  in  char- 
acter. The  great  difficulty  in  the  treatment  of  all  topics 
in  the  first  year  or  two  of  geographical  study  lies  in  bas- 
ing it  upon  concrete  experience,  and  thus  filling  up  these 
general  notions  with  meaning.  A  mere  outline  of  leading 
points  in  a  subject  is  almost  wholly  lacking  in  interest,  and 
cannot  reveal  to  a  child  the  causal  and  necessary  relations, 
any  more  than  the  mere  names  of  a  series  of  battles  indi- 
cates the  strategic  skill  of  a  general.  The  details  with 
which  the  topic  is  filled  give  not  only  interesting  pictures, 
special  objects,  and  lively  experiences  for  the  children  to 
incorporate  into  their  thought  (such  as  a  good  excursion 
or  a  good  magazine  article  always  furnishes),  but  these 
detailed  facts  are  the  real  links  of  the  causal  connection 
in  important  sequences.  If  a  child  has  traced  the  corn 
from  the  field  to  the  corn-crib,  then  through  the  process 


24  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

of  shelling  to  the  grain  elevator,  where  he  sees  it  loaded 
into  cars  and  shipped  to  Chicago,  where  again  it  is  trans- 
ferred to  lake  vessels  and  shipped  eastward,  he  has  a  com- 
plete series  of  causally  connected  facts.  These  facts  will 
aid  him  greatly  in  interpreting  the  work  of  the  farmer 
and  the  grain  merchant  in  all  parts  of  the  great  corn  belt. 
They  will  also  help  him  to  understand  better  the  shipment 
of  wheat  from  the  wheat  regions,  and  the  movement  of 
other  products  which  are  sent  to  the  great  centres  of  trade, 
like  Duluth,  Minneapolis,  Chicago,  New  Orleans,  New 
York,  etc.  Such  a  close  causal  sequence  is  found  in 
nearly  every  topic  which  is  treated  in  home  geography, 
and  this  same  causal  sequence  becomes  typical  in  later 
study  of  the  largest  geographical  notions  or  units. 

The  lessons  in  the  book,  being  for  the  most  part  more 
general,  comprehensive  statements,  are  better  adapted  to 
close  up  and  round  out  the  treatment  of  topics  than  to 
serve  as  a  first  introduction  to  them.  They  are  an  excel- 
lent basis  for  the  teacher's  study,  showing  what  topics  to 
treat  and  how  to  centre  his  thought  on  the  main  idea  and 
to  get  a  proper  sequence  of  topics  and  materials.  It  will 
take  thoughtfulness  and  skill  to  bring  the  work  of  the 
local  excursions  into  close  relation  to  the  text-book  study. 
At  this  point  the  teacher  has  to  deal  with  several  bodies 
of  knowledge  :  (1)  the  experience  which  every  child 
picks  up  incidentally  about  home  ;  (2)  the  local  knowl- 
edge gained  through  local  excursions  ;  (3)  the  pictures, 
descriptions,  and  explanatory  matter  contained  in  the  text- 
book ;  (4)  the  general  geographical  notions  which  these 
different  materials  are  designed  to  illuminate.  It  may 
seem  to  be  a  heavy  task  for  the  teacher  to  organize  all  this 
material  fitly,  but  it  is  by  no  means  so  difficult  as  to  try 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY  25 

to  teach  geography  without  such  concrete  matter.  For 
example,  the  chapter  on  ponds  and  lakes  contains  general 
descriptions,  backed  by  pictures  and  drawings,  and  further 
detailed  suggestions  to  teachers.  In  addition  to  these  it 
is  useful  to  call  up  the  particular  experiences  of  children 
with  dams,  ponds,  and  lakes,  to  review  any  excursions 
which  bear  upon  these  topics,  and  even  to  illustrate  from 
the  lakes  of  one's  own  state  the  points  mentioned  in  the 
text.  New  York  State,  for  example,  has  many  illustra- 
tions like  Oneida,  Cayuga,  Ontario,  and  Chautauqua,  which 
show  the  inlet  and  outlet  of  rivers,  also  the  irregular  shore 
lines,  the  harbors  and  cities,  and  the  various  uses  of  lakes 
for  commerce,  fishing,  drinking  water,  ice,  summer  resorts, 
scenery,  and  the  like. 

The  teacher  should  not  forget  to  make  use  of  the  larger 
opportunities  for  observation  and  travel  which  he  has  had. 
His  reading  also  will  have  supplied  him  with  many  defi- 
nite geographical  details,  and  he  should  strive  in  every 
way  to  use  these  experiences  to  give  a  lively  interest  to 
geographical  study.  A  teacher  with  a  good  imagination 
can  build  up  from  his  reading  and  studies  geographical  pic- 
tures which  are  more  vivid  and  expressive  than  the  direct 
observations  of  many  people.  In  connection  with  the  dis- 
cussion of  harbors  on  pages  58  and  59,  it  may  be  well  to 
present  clearly,  by  means  of  a  board  map,  pictures,  and 
verbal  description,  such  places  as  the  harbor  of  New  York, 
San  Francisco,  or  some  other  sea  port  or  lake  port,  familiar 
by  name  to  the  children. 

There  is  still  another  means  by  which  such  topics  can 
be  enriched  with  concrete  material,  and  the  work  be  made 
very  interesting.  The  large  topics  treated  in  the  book 
furnish  an  excellent  basis  for  the  collection  of  pictures  and 


26  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

for  grouping  them  about  significant  ideas.  Even  during 
the  first  two  years  of  study  this  can  be  done  to  a  con- 
siderable extent.  From  papers,  magazines,  guide  books, 
and  advertisements,  from  railroad  announcements  and 
pictures,  it  is  possible  for  teacher  and  children  to  work 
together  in  gathering  and  sorting  material  suitable  for 
illustrating  the  lessons.  Old  geographies  furnish  excel- 
lent material  of  this  sort.  Even  after  being  sorted  arid 
arranged,  these  pictures  need  to  be  studied  and  interpreted, 
as  children  are  largely  lacking  in  the  experience  necessary 
to  interpret  even  good  pictures.  These  need  also  to  be 
brought  into  direct  relation  to  the  topic  studied  in  the 
books.  Such  pictures  are  well  worth  preserving  in  scrap- 
books  for  use  in  future  classes. 

In  addition  to  his  other  accomplishments,  it  is  well  for 
the  teacher  to  use  the  sand  map,  and  mould  the  desired 
forms  quickly,  while  talking  and  explaining,  and  per- 
haps questioning  the  children.  Children  also  take  much 
pleasure  in  constructing  local  and  other  maps  in  sand. 
Sometimes  the  corner  of  the  schoolroom  may  be  used  for 
this  purpose,  sometimes  the  ground  on  the  campus  or 
school  yard  furnishes,  in  good  weather,  the  best  conditions 
for  map-making. 

Before  leaving  each  important  topic  or  division  of  a 
topic  the  pupil  should  be  able  to  give  a  connected  and 
relatively  complete  description  of  the  subject  handled, 
basing  it  partly  upon  the  book  lesson  and  partly  upon 
knowledge  gained  from  other  sources.  Until  this  is  done  the 
teacher  cannot  be  sure  that  the  children  have  clear  notions 
and  a  real  mastery  of  the  subject.  Such  recitals  by  the 
children  should  not  be  interrupted  by  frequent  questions 
and  interpolations  by  the  teacher.  Full,  clear,  and  self- 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY  27 

reliant  expression  by  the  children  is  the  aim  to  be  reached. 
Frequent  questions  either  interrupt  the  children  or  help 
them  with  suggestions  to  such  an  extent  that  they  do  not 
gain  the  power  of  clear  and  connected  narrative.  This 
ability  is,  however,  a  result  that  every  good  teacher  will 
work  for  until  it  is  reached.  The  teacher  should  be  kind 
and  considerate  of  the  children  in  every  way,  but  this 
should  not  interfere  with  high  aims  and  strong  demands 
for  self-reliant  effort. 

As  soon  as  the  children  are  old  enough  to  write  upon 
topics  treated  in  the  book,  it  is  a  fine  test  of  their  power 
and  of  the  teacher's  success  to  give  them  a  written  test. 
He  must  not  expect  too  much  at  first,  as  children  are  not 
very  proficient  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  grades  in  the  writ- 
ten expression  of  their  thought ;  but  it  is  very  useful 
both  to  teacher  and  pupils  to  apply  the  written  test  to  the 
previous  oral  work  and  discussion. 

The  text-book  itself  forms  a  good  basis  for  strong  work 
during  the  study  period.  It  is  the  practice  of  our  schools 
generally  to  supply  our  children  with  a  good  deal  of  study 
work  at  their  desks  in  preparation  for  their  coming  lessons, 
and  the  teacher  must  provide  for  this.  But  it  should  be 
remembered  that  children  of  this  age  should  be  able  to 
read  and  understand  the  text  with  comparative  ease  before 
it  is  turned  over  to  them  for  seat  study.  Our  whole  dis- 
cussion heretofore  has  revealed  the  variety  of  concrete 
experiences  which  should  stand  at  the  beginning  of  any 
topic.  In  the  assignment  of  the  lesson  for  seat  study  it 
is  well  to  call  these  topics  to  mind,  to  anticipate  any 
unusual  difficulties,  by  calling  up  the  previous  experience 
of  the  children,  and  thus  to  arouse  their  interest.  In  this 
preliminary  work  children  must  first  learn  how  to  think 


28  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

geography  before  they  can  put  the  right  kind  of  inter- 
pretation into  the  descriptions  and  statements  of  the 
book. 

THE  EARTH  AS  A  WHOLE 

The  study  of  the  Earth  as  a  Whole  calls  for  a  very  brief 
treatment  for  children  of  this  age.  Children  are  naturally 
interested  in  thinking  of  the  earth  as  a  great  ball  and  they 
are  capable  of  understanding  a  few  of  the  simpler  notions 
of  mathematical  geography.  The  topics  on  local  geog- 
raphy concerning  the  seasons,  observations  of  the  sun, 
moon,  and  stars,  and  the  changes  of  day  and  night  are 
an  indispensable  basis  for  this  study  of  the  earth  whole. 
The  notion  of  the  earth  as  a  globe  should  be  gotten  from 
as  large-sized  globes  as  can  be  secured.  In  these  lessons 
the  appeal  to  the  senses  and  imagination  of  the  children 
by  means  of  globes  of  different  sizes  to  represent  the  earth, 
moon,  and  sun  is  very  helpful.  A  yarn  ball  pierced  with 
a  knitting-needle,  a  marble,  a  football,  pasteboard  globes, 
and  the  best  school  globes  are  very  useful.  The  teacher 
needs  to  handle  these  materials  very  freely  to  show  the 
relative  position  and  motion  of  the  earth.  At  the  same 
time  the  blackboard  may  be  used  for  the  graphic  repre- 
sentation of  the  earth  in  its  position  and  course.  It  is 
well  also  for  the  children  to  use  the  globes  and  make  the 
drawings  to  express  their  understanding  of  the  subject. 
Long  verbal  niceties  are  to  be  avoided.  The  whole  subject 
needs  a  brief  treatment,  and  its  more  difficult  points  should 
be  left  for  later  years. 

In  fixing  the  names  and  location  of  the  different  parts 
of  the  earth  upon  the  globe,  such  as  zones,  continents, 
oceans,  and  lesser  divisions,  the  quickest  way  is  that  by 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY  29 

oral  drills  with  the  whole  class.  This  is  an  old-fashioned 
concert  drill  in  naming  and  pointing  out  the  location  of 
geographical  objects.  Let  the  teacher  use  the  pointer  and 
secure  lively,  spirited  work.  In  a  very  few  lessons  the 
essential  things  will  be  learned.  This  is  no  suitable  place 
for  memorizing  a  multitude  of  geographical  names  and 
places  about  which  the  children  know  nothing.  At  the 
same  time  this  study  of  the  earth  as  a  whole  and  the  fixing 
of  the  great  geographical  features  upon  the  globe  give  an 
element  of  clearness  to  all  later  geographical  study.  The 
general  movement  is  from  the  home  outward  toward  the 
remoter  parts  of  the  earth,  but  children  must  have  a 
general  grasp  of  the  earth  whole  at  first,  so  that  they  will 
not  be  moving  out  constantly  into  a  dark  or  vague 
unknown. 

The  study  of  the  earth  as  a  whole  should  be  brought 
into  close  relation  to  the.  previous  experiences  of  children 
and  especially  to  the  home  geography.  In  conversation 
they  have  heard  more  or  less  of  other  countries  and  of  the 
earth  as  a  big  ball.  They  see  the  Chinese,  the  Germans 
and  Italians,  and  other  races  on  the  street,  and  they  can 
locate  on  the  globe  the  countries  from  which  they  come 
and  the  oceans  they  must  cross  in  order  to  reach  the 
United  States.  Many  of  the  common  articles  of  food  on 
our  tables,  and  our  clothing  or  ornaments  come  from 
foreign  countries.  Let  them  be  located  with  reference  to 
these  facts  ;  e.g.,  tea,  coffee,  sugar,  spices,  ostrich  feath- 
ers, ivory,  mahogany  wood,  statuary,  porcelain,  tropical 
fruits,  house  plants  like  begonias  and  palms,  cocoanuts, 
parrots,  silks,  rugs,  and  even  curiosities  they  may  have 
seen,  or  wild  animals  from  different  parts  of  the  world. 
Even  the  stories  the  children  have  read  from  the  "  Seven 


30  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

Little  Sisters,"  the  "  Arabian  Nights,"  the  Bible  stories, 
the  voyage  of  Columbus,  the  Greek  stories  and  myths, 
may  be  used  to  help  in  locating  far  distant  countries. 

The  study  of  the  grocery  and  fruit  store,  the  china 
store,  and  the  breakfast  table  may  also  lead  us  to  the 
most  distant  parts  of  the  earth. 

EXCURSIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 
EXCURSION  TO  THE  NORMAL  SCHOOL  TOWER 

The  excursion  with  a  class  of  third  grade  children  to 
the  tower  of  the  Northern  Illinois  Normal  School  was 
designed  to  give  a  broad  survey  of  the  country  about 
De  Kalb.  The  tower  is  about  ninety  feet  high  and  gives 
a  good  view,  five  or  six  miles  in  all  directions,  including 
prairie,  woods,  creek,  the  town  of  De  Kalb,  farms,  fields, 
etc. 

1.  Before  taking  the  trip  the  teacher  made  a  visit  to 
the  tower  and  studied  the  surrounding  country,  thinking 
out  a  series  of  topics  which  would  interest  and  instruct 
the  children  as  observation  material. 

2.  Just   before   the   children   began    the    trip,   fifteen 
minutes  were  spent  with  the  class  on  such  questions  as 
the  following  :    At  what  places  in  De  Kalb  can  one  get 
a   good   view   of    the    surrounding    town   and   country  ? 
They  mentioned  a  few  such  places,  as  the  water-tower, 
the  tops  of  some  high  buildings,  windmills,  and  steeples. 
Name  some  of  the  objects  which  you  will  be  able  to  see 
from  the  top  of  the  Normal  School  tower.    What  else  will 
you  be  able  to  see  from  this  tower  ?     How  far  can  you 
see  ?     Can  you  see  your  homes  ?     How  high  is  the  tower  ? 
They  named  several  things,  creek,  railroad,  bridges,  water- 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY  31 

tower,  factories,  homes,  etc.,  and  pointed,  naming  direc- 
tions. 

With  these  preliminary  questions  and  discussions  it 
was  thought  the  children  would  be  more  acute  and  defi- 
nite in  their  observations  when  the  opportunity  was 
given. 

3.  The  children,  about  fifteen  in  number,  climbed  five 
stairways  to  the  top  of  the  tower,  when  they  came  out 
into  the  open,  and  quickly  began  to  name  and  locate 
objects  in  one  direction  after  another. 

(#)  In  particular  toward  the  south  they  notice  the 
natural  woods,  the  two  bridges  across  the  creek,  the  shoe 
factory,  the  creamery,  the  fields  and  farms  beyond,  and 
the  distant  course  of  the  creek. 

(5)  Toward  the  north  are  seen  the  open  fields  and 
pastures,  ploughed  fields,  cattle  and  horses,  stacks  of  straw, 
corn  in  the  shocks,  and  in  the  distance,  six  miles  away, 
dimly,  the  water-tower  of  Sycamore,  a  neighboring  town. 

(c)  To  the  east,  across  the  creek,  lies  the  town  of  De 
Kalb,  the  stores,  nine  tall  factory  chimneys,  several  church- 
towers,  the  water-tower,  the  gas-tank,  and  the  clusters  of 
houses.     They  notice  also  some  of  the  streets  and  point 
out  their  own  homes.     Beyond  the  town  they  can  see  the 
farms  and  fields  of  the  level  country. 

(d)  The  country  to  the  west  is  a  broad  rolling  prairie 
dotted  with  groves  and  farmhouses,  with  big  barns  and 
windmills.     Stock  is  seen  in  the  pastures,  and  the  fields 
are   mostly   brown   with   autumn.      The   little   creek   or 
brook  that  passes  through  the  campus  can  be  seen  in  its 
course  two  miles  or  more  to  the  west,  also  the  slopes  on 
either  side.     From  these  slopes  comes  the  water  that  fills 
the  brook  at  the  time  of  the  spring  floods. 


32  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

(e)  The  children  call  attention  to  the  line  where  the 
sky  and  earth  seem  to  .meet  and  call  it  the  horizon.  How 
far  away  is  it  ?  What  is  its  shape  on  all  sides?  How  big 
a  circle  can  we  see  across,  with  the  tower  as  a  centre  ? 
Can  we  see  the  whole  county  ?  The  children  notice  the 
small  size  of  objects  like  men  or  cattle,  as  we  look  down 
upon  them. 

CO  WG  notice  that  along  the  course  of  the  creek  to 
the  east  for  several  miles  there  are  natural  groves  of  hard- 
wood trees.  Toward  the  west  lies  the  prairie,  with  only 
such  groves  and  orchards  as  men  have  planted.  Once  it 
was  treeless  prairie.  Toward  the  east  also  is  the  town 
with  its  smoking  chimneys  and  crowded  houses,  toward 
the  west  the  open  country  with  its  fenced  fields  and 
scattered  farm  dwellings,  groves,  etc.  While  the  children 
are  observing  from  the  tower,  they  should  be  called  to- 
gether and  asked  specific  questions  about  the  things  seen, 
so  as  to  give  definiteness  to  their  observations  ;  otherwise 
they  will  fail  to  see  clearly  the  important  things. 

The  next  day  it  will  be  found  necessary  to  have  a  dis- 
cussion of  the  experiences  gathered  upon  the  excursion. 
Let  the  children  explain  one  after  another  the  things 
observed  in  the  four  directions.  To  give  definiteness  to 
these  reproductions  have  a  large  piece  of  drawing  or 
wrapping  paper  laid  flat  upon  the  floor,  upon  which  to 
draw  a  map  with  the  schoolhouse  and  campus  as  the 
centre.  The  course  of  the  creek  is  drawn  also  upon  this, 
and  the  location  of  forests,  city,  fields,  and  all  objects  of 
interest  noted.  Let  the  teacher  draw  this  map  before  the 
children,  and  have  them  explain  the  direction  and  the 
proper  location  of  creek,  bridges,  railroad,  water-tower, 
etc. 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY  33 

Let  the  children  also  give  complete  verbal  statements 
of  the  things  seen,  with  as  little  questioning  as  possible, 
using  the  five  topics  as  a  basis.  The  map  can  now  be 
hung  up  on  the  wall,  and  the  directions,  fixed  before  in 
their  natural  position,  still  retained  in  this  changed  posi- 
tion. Somewhat  later  it  may  be  well  to  make  a  more 
careful  study  of  the  slopes  and  to  form  a  sand  map  which 
illustrates  surface  features.  An  excursion  outdoors,  along 
the  little  creek,  to  get  the  ups  and  downs,  the  hills  and 
slopes,  and  the  level  flats  near  the  brook,  is  advisable,  as 
a  preparation  for  the  sand  map.  This  will  lead  the  chil- 
dren to  observe  more  closely  the  arrangement  of  slopes 
and  variations  in  level. 

Later  still  it  may  be  well  to  show  the  map  of  the  state 
of  Illinois,  including  De  Kalb  County,  and  thus  bring 
their  experiences  about  the  home  into  relation  to  the  wall 
map,  and  then  finally  to  the  United  States  and  to  the 
world. 

After  this  preliminary  board  sketching  a  map  of  the 
town,  showing  a  few  chief  highways  leading  out  to  the 
country  and  to  neighboring  towns,  may  be  made  by  each 
pupil,  applying  a  definite  scale  of  an  inch  or  half-inch  to 
the  mile. 

The  location  and  direction  of  the  neighboring  towns 
and  the  railroads  connecting  with  them  should  be  shown 
by  sketches  made  by  the  teacher  on  the  blackboard. 

Any  sketching  done  by  the  teacher  on  the  board  may 
be  required  later  from  the  children,  so  that  they  may 
learn  to  express  themselves  freely  in  maps.  The  sketch- 
ing of  these  maps  on  the  board,  and  the  writing  of  the 
names  of  objects  or  places,  may  be  a  profitable  exercise  in 
seat  work  during  the  study  period. 


34  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

In  case  the  children  need  a  topic  for  written  language, 
it  would  be  wise  to  use  these  topics  developed  in  the  ex- 
cursion as  a  basis  for  such  written  work. 

It  is  advisable  to  take  a  similar  excursion  with  these 
children  in  June,  when  the  fields  show  a  wholly  different 
aspect  and  the  woods  and  groves  are  in  leaf. 

EXCURSION  TO  A  NURSERY 

Near  the  schoolhouse  at  Normal,  Illinois,  is  a  nursery 
where  fruit  trees,  shade  trees,  ornamental  bushes,  and 
small-fruit  plants  are  cultivated  and  sold  to  growers. 

In  April  an  excursion  is  often  made  with  the  children 
to  the  packing  grounds  of  this  nursery.  At  this  season 
the  nurserymen  are  very  busy  packing  the  young  trees 
and  plants  for  shipment  to  many  parts  of  the  country. 

The  children  notice  large  pine  boxes  some  twelve  feet 
Jong,  and  three  feet  square  at  the  end.  Straw  is  thrown 
into  the  bottom  of  the  box,  and  then  the  apple  trees,  two 
or  three  years  old,  are  wrapped  at  the  roots  with  wet 
moss  and  packed  into  the  box.  When  the  box  is  full  the 
whole  is  drenched  with  water  so  as  to  keep  the  roots  damp 
during  the  time  of  shipment.  Wagon-loads  of  these 
boxes  are  driven  to  the  station,  where  they  are  freighted 
to  all  parts  of  Illinois  and  neighboring  states. 

Sometimes  a  small  consignment  of  plants  or  trees  is 
wrapped  first  in  moss,  then  in  straw,  and  the  whole  care- 
fully bound  with  strong  cord  and  shipped  thus  without 
boxing. 

The  straw  for  packing  is  obtained  from  the  farms  near 
by  ;  but  the  fine  moss,  which  holds  moisture  and  keeps  the 
roots  damp,  is  obtained  from  the  swamp  lands  of  Michigan. 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY  35 

In  the  packing  grounds  the  children  see  thousands  of 
young  trees,  apple,  pear,  peach,  cherry,  and  shade  trees, 
closely  packed  together  with  their  roots  in  the  dirt,  hav- 
ing been  collected  from  the  nursery  fields  and  thus  "healed 
in  "  in  readiness  for  shipping.  Evergreen  trees,  lilacs, 
rose  bushes,  hedge  plants,  and  others  are  also  kept  in 
abundance  upon  the  packing  grounds. 

In  late  winter  another  excursion  can  be  made  to  the 
long  cellar-like  houses  where  the  grafting  and  budding 
of  young  fruit  trees  are  carried  on.  The  young  seedlings 
are  raised  by  thousands  the  preceding  summer,  and  upon 
the  roots  of  these  the  choice  kinds  of  fruit  are  grafted  or 
budded.  The  process  of  cutting  and  wrapping  can  be 
learned,  and  in  the  trees  a  year  or  two  older  the  effects  of 
the  budding  or  grafting  can  be  seen.  In  this  connection 
children  may  learn  how  our  domestic  fruits  have  been  de- 
veloped and  how  varieties  are  obtained  and  propagated. 

The  apple  seeds  used  for  raising  seedlings  are  brought 
often  from  Europe,  where  they  are  obtained  from  the 
pulps  of  apples  used  in  the  cider-presses. 

A  practical  lesson  is  learned  upon  these  excursions  as 
to  how  to  plant  and  to  care  for  young  trees.  In  connec- 
tion with  arbor  day  this  is  the  best  mode  of  encouraging 
the  planting  and  care  of  trees. 

Spring  or  early  fall  is  also  a  good  time  to  go  through 
the  nursery  fields,  to  observe  the  cultivation  of  various 
fruit  and  ornamental  trees,  and  to  notice  how  rapid  is  the 
growth  of  young  plants. 

In  the  discussion  and  reproduction  of  the  main  facts 
learned  upon  these  excursions,  the  value  of  the  nursery 
to  farmers  and  fruit-growers,  as  a  necessary  source  from 
which  to  obtain  young  trees  and  plants  of  all  kinds,  is 


36  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

emphasized.  In  the  prairie  and  treeless  regions  of  the 
West  and  in  fruit-growing  regions  the  importance  of  the 
nurseries  in  the  last  thirty  years  has  been  very  great. 

Children  may  be  led  to  discriminate  in  their  observa- 
tions between  apple,  peach,  pear,  and  cherry  trees  so  that 
they  can  recognize  them  in  later  observations  ;  also  be- 
tween the  kinds  of  shade  trees,  as  maple,  box-elder,  elm, 
oak,  cottonwood,  etc. 

EXCURSION  TO  A  BLACKSMITH  SHOP 

Before  taking  children  to  a  blacksmith  shop  it  is  well 
for  the  teacher,  as  in  most  excursions,  to  visit  the  shop 
and  study  its  work. 

The  children  enjoy  seeing  the  blacksmith  working  at 
the  forge  or  hammering  the  red-hot  iron  upon  the  anvil. 
The  use  of  the  bellows  for  increasing  the  draft  and  heat- 
ing the  iron  arouses  their  interest.  The  kind  of  coal  used 
and  where  it  is  obtained  should  be  known.  It  comes 
in  lumps,  but  breaks  up  very  fine  at  the  touch  of  the 
hammer. 

When  a  horse  is  brought  into  the  shop  to  be  shod,  a 
pair  of  shoes  of  the  right  size  is  selected,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  horse's  foot.  The  blacksmith  does  not  make 
the  shoes  and  shoe  nails  as  formerly,  but  they  are  sent 
him  from  the  large  factory.  Yet  the  iron  shoes  that  come 
from  the  factory  have  no  toes  nor  heels,  so  necessary  in 
holding  the  foot  firmly  on  icy  or  slippery  ground.  The 
children  see  the  blacksmith  heat  the  horseshoe  to  a  bright 
heat,  then,  on  the  anvil,  they  see  him  turn  down  and 
sharpen  the  heel  points  and  weld  on  the  toe  point.  After 
that  the  shoe  is  cooled.  The  blacksmith  takes  the  horse's 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY  37 

foot  between  his  knees  and  trims  the  hoof.  By  question- 
ing the  smith  we  find  that  the  hoof  grows  constantly,  and 
the  whole  is  renewed  once  a  year.  The  old  hoof  needs 
to  be  trimmed  with  a  knife,  and  the  new  shoe  is  fastened 
on  firmly  by  wr ought-iron  nails  which  are  driven  through 
the  edge  of  the  hoof  and  clinched  on  the  outside.  'About 
once  in  six  weeks  or  two  months  the  shoes  need  to  be 
taken  off,  sharpened,  and  fitted  on  again.  The  advantage 
to  the  horses  is  the  avoidance  of  tender  feet,  greater  firm- 
ness upon  the  ground  in  walking,  running,  and  hauling, 
and  in  winter  time  especially  the  avoidance  of  slipping 
and  falling,  and  perhaps  breaking  the  legs. 

The  cost  of  shoeing  a  horse  on  all  four  feet  with  new 
shoes  may  be  $1.50.  For  resetting  old  shoes,  one-half 
this.  But  the  value  to  the  farmer  or  teamster  of  having 
his  horses  well  shod  is  much  greater  than  this.  The  black- 
smith is  thus  seen  to  be  a  very  important  workman  for  the 
farmer,  the  drayman,  the  liveryman,  and  for  any  one  using 
horses. 

The  tools  used  by  the  blacksmith  are  worthy  of  some 
special  examination.  The  long  tongs  for  handling  hot 
iron,  the  anvil  and  hammers  and  wedges,  the  knives  for 
trimming  the  hoofs,  the  peculiar  working  of  the  bellows, 
the  pincers  for  drawing  nails,  and  the  files,  —  each  has  its 
peculiar  use  and  fitness.  Then  the  skill  and  ease  with 
which  the  workman  performs  his  work  should  be  realized 
to  some  extent  by  the  children. 

The  sources  from  which  the  blacksmith  gets  his  tools, 
horseshoes,  nails,  anvils,  and  forge  will  also  show  his 
dependence  upon  others  in  the  simple  system  of  econo- 
mies. 

Quite  a  number  of  the  things  seen  at  the  blacksmith's 


38  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

are  suitable  objects  for  the  children  to  draw,  as  the 
forge,  anvil,  tools,  and  even  the  blacksmith  shoeing  a 
horse.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  the  children  making 
an  interesting  group  of  drawings  on  paper  or  on  the 
blackboard  as  the  result  of  such  a  visit  to  the  shop. 

In  this  shop  also  the  iron  parts  of  wagons  and  buggies 
are  often  repaired,  the  tires  of  wheels  are  set  and  tight- 
ened, and  springs  are  fixed.  Oftentimes  a  blacksmith 
shop  and  a  wagon  shop  are  combined,  as  the  Avagon- 
maker  and  blacksmith  are  necessary  to  each  other  in 
the  construction  or  repair  of  a  wagon.  The  tools  and 
machines  necessary  for  this  kind  of  work  form  an  addi- 
tional study  of  interest  and  value. 

In  addition  to  the  suggestions  made  to  teachers  in 
connection  with  leading  topics  it  may  be  well  to  illustrate 
in  a  few  cases  how  a  given  home  locality  may  present 
direct  observation  lessons  preparatory  to,  or  illustrative 
of,  these  large  topics  treated  in  the  First  Book. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  the  schoolhouse  at  De  Kalb, 
Illinois,  the  topic  on  soils  may  be  enlarged  by  experiment 
and  observation  as  follows  :  Take  the  children  out  upon 
the  campus  and  into  the  neighboring  fiejds  to  notice 
the  depth  and  quality  of  soils.  If  a  ditch  has  been 
lately  dug,  notice  the  depth  of  the  black  soil  and  of  the 
yellow  clay.  If  necessary,  use  a  spade,  and  first  dig  a 
hole  upon  high  ground,  noticing  depth  of  soil.  Later 
sink  a  hole  in  the  low  swampy  campus  near  the  creek, 
and  see  if  the  soil  is  different  in  depth  and  quality  from 
that  on  the  highest  knoll.  What  reasons  may  be  given 
for  this  difference  ?  Notice  what  plants  and  trees  grow 
upon  the  low,  damp  ground,  and  what  upon  the  higher 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY  39 

parts.  In  June  or  September  observe  the  difference  in 
the  growth  of  corn  or  small  grain  upon  the  higher  and 
in  the  lower  parts  of  the  neighboring  field.  The  swampy 
places  or  sloughs  have  a  very  rank  growth.  What  is 
the  reason  for  these  differences  ?  In  the  natural  grove 
on  the  campus  examine  the  decay  of  the  leaves  and 
twigs  and  plants  under  the  trees.  Notice  the  difference, 
if  any,  between  the  soil  in  the  woods  and  that  upon  the 
prairie. 

In  spring,  at  the  time  of  the  floods  from  melting 
snows  or  rains,  take  some  of  the  muddy  water  from  the 
creek  or  brook  and  let  it  settle.  Where  does  the  creek 
gather  all  this  sediment  ?  How  large  an  area  of  land 
does  the  brook  drain  ?  Trace  up  the  slopes  as  far  as 
possible.  Where  there  are  steep  banks  by  the  side  of 
the  creek  notice  the  cross-section  of  soils.  Notice  in 
places  where  the  slopes  are  steep  how  the  water  washes 
out  the  dirt  in  little  ruts  and  gullies.  Why  do  the 
cultivated  fields  allow  the  soil  to  wash  out  more  than 
pasture  lands  ?  How  can  the  washing  away  of  the 
soils  be  hindered  along  sloping  fields  ?  Notice  how  the 
farmers  enrich  the  fields  with  fertilizers  and  sometimes 
sow  grain  fields  to  grass  and  clover.  What  reasons 
may  be  given  for  this?  Notice  the  effect  of  draining 
the  low  lands  or  marshy  places  by  tiles.  What  is  the 
advantage  of  this  drainage  to  the  soil  and  crops  ? 

In  boring  the  wells  for  town  water  supply  twelve 
hundred  feet  of  strata  were  passed  through.  Find  out 
what  these  strata  were  and  make  a  sectional  view  of  them 
upon  the  blackboard.  Twenty  miles  east  of  the  town 
the  railroad  crosses  the  valley  of  the  Fox  River,  which 
has  been  washed  out  forty  or  fifty  feet  deeper  than  the 


40  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

prairie  on  either  side.  Make  a  diagram  of  this  on  the 
board,  and  show  where  the  rock  quarries  jut  out  at 
the  sides  of  the  valley,  from  which  sources  the  lime- 
stone rock  for  the  foundations  of  houses  is  obtained. 

Observations  which  can  be  made  by  a  class  near  the 
school  at  De  Kalb  in  connection  with  the  topics  on  rivers 
in  the  First  Book. 

The  winding  course  of  the  river,  fringed  in  places 
with  groves  of  natural  woods,  the  general  direction  of 
the  valley,  with  the  slopes  on  the  sides,  and  the  tribu- 
tary brooks,  can  be  traced  by  observation.  The  floods 
of  the  Kishwaukee  in  March,  which  are  caused  by  the 
melting  snow  and  rain,  break  up  the  ice  which  has 
formed  during  the  winter  months  and  send  it  down, the 
stream  in  floating  masses.  This  mass  of  ice  sometimes 
collects  above  the  foot-bridge,  and  even  threatens  to 
sweep  away  the  heavy  piles  upon  which  it  is  built. 
Water  is  from  five  to  eight  feet  deep  and  from  sixty  to 
one  hundred  feet  wide.  During  the  several  days  of  the 
spring  freshet,  and  for  several  weeks,  in  fact,  a  very 
large  quantity  of  water  passes  down  this  valley.  With- 
out the  river  to  drain  off  this  excess  of  water  the  fields 
would  remain  flooded  for  long  periods. 

At  the  same  time  the  small  tributary  stream  or  brook 
which  passes  through  the  campus  grounds  overflows  its 
banks,  and  spreads  out  over  the  low  part  of  the  campus 
almost  like  a  river,  making  approach  from  that  direction 
to  the  school  impossible.  It  collects  much  sediment 
from  the  corn-fields  and  other  fields  which  it  drains, 
and  when  the  flood  is  passed  the  mud  is  found  covering 
the  sidewalks  and  slopes.  On  the  other  side  of  the 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY  41 

river,  toward  the  town,  small  runs  and  sewers  empty 
into  the  river,  which  in  this  way  provides  drainage  for 
the  town. 

During  the  dry  summer  and  autumn  months  there  is 
but  little  running  water  in  the  river.  Locate  the  sources 
of  the  river  in  the  swampy  prairies  some  miles  south  of 
De  Kalb.  Here  the  channel  has  been  deepened  and 
straightened  by  artificial  ditching,  thus  draining  the 
rich  prairie  swamps  and  converting  them  into  rich,  pro- 
ductive fields. 

Trace  the  course  of  this  small  river  northward  until 
it  unites  with  other  creeks,  passes  by  the  city  of  Belvi- 
dere,  and  joins  the  Rock  River.  On  the  map  of  Illinois 
follow  the  course  of  the  Rock  River  until  it  joins  the 
Mississippi,  then  on  the  map  of  the  United  States  trace 
the  Mississippi  until  it  reaches  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Suggestions  in  connection  with  the  topic  on  ponds  and 
lakes,  First  Book. 

Observe  the  pond  on  the  campus  and  the  slopes  from 
which  the  water  is  collected.  At  other  places  upon  the 
prairie  low  swampy  ponds  have  been  seen  by  the  chil- 
dren. Call  to  mind  the  rank  grasses  and  cattails  which 
are  found  growing  in  these  ponds.  Where  they  have 
been  drained  out,  the  effects  upon  the  rich  soil  can  be 
seen.  At  several  points  along  the  Kishwaukee  are  par- 
tial dams,  causing  the  water  to  collect  above.  At  points 
where  small  creeks  enter,  can  be  seen  the  fan  of  dirt 
which  has  been  washed  down  by  the  tributary  brook. 
Notice  the  effect  of  washing  and  rolling  upon  the  pebbles 
and  stones  in  the  bed  of  the  creek.  Ask  the  children 
how  many  of  them  have  seen  Lake  Michigan.  Could 


42  NORTH  AMERICA 

they  see  across  it  ?  The  distance  across  Lake  Michigan 
just  above  Chicago  is  about  sixty  miles,  the  same  as 
the  distance  from  De  Kalb  to  Chicago,  about  an  hour 
and  a  half  by  rail  with  the  fast  trains.  What  can  the 
children  recall  about  the  ships  on  Lake  Michigan  and 
along  the  Chicago  River.  Show  pictures  of  the  lake 
steamers  and  sailing  vessels  and  of  the  loading  at  the 
wharf. 

NORTH   AMERICA   AND   OTHER   CONTINENTS 

1.  The  value  of  the  full  study  of  North  America. 
Following  close  upon  the  heels  of  home  geography  comes 
the  study  of  the  United  States  and  of  North  America. 
There  are  good  reasons  for  an  enlarged  study  of  our  own 
country  early  in  the  geographical  course.  A  much  fuller 
treatment  of  the  chief  topics  in  our  own  country,  preced- 
ing any  detailed  study  of  foreign  countries,  is  rapidly 
becoming  the  order  of  the  day.  There  are  several  good 
reasons  why  these  home  studies  of  our  own  country  should 
precede  all  others  in  geography.  In  the  first  place,  they 
are  more  directly  connected  with  the  topics  already 
studied  in  home  geography,  and  in  many  respects  they 
are  a  direct  outcome  and  continuation  of  those  topics.  In 
the  second  place,  they  are  by  hearsay  and  by  frequent 
mention  better  known  to  the  children  than  anything  else. 
The  children  of  New  York  State,  even  before  beginning 
geographical  study,  have  heard  many  times  about  the 
Hudson,  the  Adirondacks,  the  Great  Lakes,  New  York 
City,  Buffalo,  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  the  Ohio  River, 
and  they  are  much  more  interested  in  these  than  in  many 
foreign  places  of  which  they  have  never  heard.  Thirdly, 
the  leading  topics  of  study  in  the  United  States,  as  the 


AND   OTHER   CONTINENTS  43 

rivers,  cities,  mountains,  lakes,  products,  industries,  etc., 
illustrate  or  explain  almost  exactly  many  of  the  same 
topics  which  will  be  studied  later  in  other  countries.  It 
seems  strange  that  we  should  think  of  studying  the  moun- 
tains, the  rivers,  the  agriculture,  mining,  and  manufactur- 
ing of  other  countries  before  giving  any  clear  description 
and  understanding  of  kindred  things  near  by,  and  known 
to  us  as  important  in  our  own  land.  Fourth,  a  much 
greater  concreteness  and  fulness  of  detail  are  appropriate 
to  these  topics  descriptive  of  our  own  country  than  to 
the  multitude  of  topics  in  foreign  lands.  It  is  very  de- 
sirable that  such  topics  as  are  treated  in  the  early  years 
should  be  full  of  relishable,  meaty  subject-matter.  This 
can  be  secured  easily  in  topics  like  those  of  the  Second 
Book,  as  the  Mississippi  River,  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the 
Great  Lakes,  and  the  people  and  industries  of  our  own 
country. 

We  must  make  our  choice,  then,  between  a  full,  rich,  and 
instructive  discussion  of  a  few  leading  American  topics 
in  early  years,  and  a  lean,  shallow,  uninteresting  summary 
of  many  topics  selected  from  the  whole  geography  of  the 
earth.  There  can  be  little  doubt  which  of  these  plans  is 
more  valuable  and  educative. 

Fifth,  the  history  stories  connected  with  North  America 
which  are  treated  in  the  same  grades  as  the  geography, 
make  it  especially  advantageous  to  bring  the  geography 
and  history  into  closest  relation.  The  stories  of  Hudson, 
Champlain^  La  Salle,  De  Soto,  Lewis  and  Clark,  and  others 
cannot  be  understood  without  the  geography  of  North 
America.  On  the  other  hand,  the  history  stories  lend  a 
peculiar  attractiveness  to  many  localities  in  our  American 
geography. 


41  NORTH  AMERICA 

Our  American  schools  are  beginning  to  make  much  use 
of  early  American  history  stories  in  the  middle  grades. 
Nearly  every  important  part  of  North  America,  its  rivers, 
mountains,  plains,  and  coast  lines,  is  touched  in  an  inter- 
esting way  by  these  stories  of  early  adventure  and  dis- 
covery. What  a  waste  for  children  to  be  studying  the 
geography  of  Turkey  and  Russia,  of  the  Nile  Valley  and 
of  Siberia,  when  in  their  history  lessons,  in  the  same  grade, 
they  are  with  the  French  explorers  along  the  Great  Lakes, 
or  with  De  Soto  and  La  Salle  upon  the  lower  Mississippi, 
or  with  Lewis  and  Clark  in  their  voyage  up  the  Missouri 
and  across  the  Rocky  Mountains,  or  with  George  Rogers 
Clark  descending  the  Ohio  River,  or  with  Hudson  and 
John  Smith  and  Miles  Standish  along  the  eastern  coast  ! 

Such  a  brief  general  survey  of  the  world  whole  as  is 
necessary  for  children  of  these  grades  has  been  amply 
provided  for  in  the  lessons  following  the  home  geography 
in  the  First  Book. 

Sixth,  North  America  is  extremely  rich  in  the  variety, 
attractiveness*  and  importance  of  its  geographical  features. 
The  Mississippi  River  furnishes  the  best  illustration  in  the 
world  of  a  great  navigable  river,  draining  the  largest  and 
richest  alluvial  plain  in  the  temperate  zone.  The  St. 
Lawrence  is  still  more  remarkable  for  its  system  of  Great 
Lakes  and  for  Niagara  Falls.  The  Colorado  is  more 
remarkable  than  either  of  them  because  of  its  Grand 
Canon.  The  mountains  of  North  America  are  of  every 
variety,  abounding  in  impressive  scenery  and  in  mineral 
resources  and  wealth  of  forests.  The  variety  of  climate 
in  this  country  is  of  every  type  from  that  of  Florida  and 
southern  California  to  that  of  Labrador  and  the  Klondike. 
The  agricultural  and  mineral  resources  of  the  country  and 


AND   OTHER   CONTINENTS  45 

the  occupations  of  the  people,  based  upon  these,  illustrate 
all  the  chief  phases  of  human  activity  on  a  grand  scale. 
It  has  even  its  desert  plateaus  and  salt  lakes,  its  volcanoes 
and  lava  beds,  its  frozen  rivers  of  the  north  and  tropical 
fruits  of  the  south,  its  Yosemite  Valley  and  Yellowstone 
Park,  its  Mammoth  Cave  and  Great  Dismal  Swamp  and 
Everglades. 

A  child  who  has  gained  a  clear  knowledge  of  the 
leading  geographical  ideas  illustrated  by  the  geography 
of  North  America  has  acquired  a  substantial  and  ade- 
quate basis  for  all  his  future  geographical  information, 
whether  gained  in  school  or  in  life. 

Seventh,  from  the  pedagogical  standpoint,  there  are 
two  significant  reasons  why  this  clear  and  full  knowledge 
of  our  own  country  should  be  gained  early  in  the  course. 
First,  it  constitutes  that  body  of  apperceptive  ideas  by 
the  use  of  which  children  can  the  more  easily  and  quickly 
master  and  appropriate  the  geography  of  other  countries. 
It  is  the  capital  with  which  a  child  quickly  develops 
the  geographical  resources  of  other  countries.  This  is 
an  idea  whose  growing  importance  is  being  more  and 
more  understood  by  teachers.  Secondly,  the  geograph- 
ical objects  with  which  the  children  are  made  familiar 
in  North  America  become  the  commonly  used  and  fixed 
standards  upon  which  all  other  foreign  objects  are 
measured  and  their  size  or  value  determined.  Just  as  a 
child  who  has  clear  notions  of  what  is  meant  by  a  foot, 
a  yard,  a  gallon,  a  barrel,  a  pound,  a  ton,  a  square  mile, 
a  hundred  miles,  a  dollar,  a  thousand  dollars,  a  peck,  a 
bushel,  etc.,  can  easily  measure  all  objects  upon  these 
standards ;  so  a  child  who  has  acquired  a  definite  knowl- 
edge of  the  Hudson  River,  of  Mt.  Washington,  of  Lake 


46  NORTH  AMERICA 

Erie,  of  Washington,  District  of  Columbia,  of  Salt  Lake, 
of  a  gold  mine,  of  oyster  fisheries,  of  a  cattle  ranch,  of 
Niagara  Falls,  of  Chicago  as  a  trade  centre,  etc.,  can 
constantly  fall  back  upon  these  familiar  standards,  and 
by  comparison  determine  the  size,  quality,  or  value  of 
new  objects  in  other  lands. 

2.  It  is  a  striking  feature  of  the  Tarr  and  McMurry 
geographies  that  they  pick  out  a  few  important  topics 
for  elaborate  treatment,  instead  of  giving  a  brief  and 
superficial  survey  of  many  topics.  This  concentration 
of  study  upon  a  few  important  units  leads  to  a  fulness 
and  thoroughness  of  instruction  which  makes  the  study 
in  all  respects  more  valuable.  There  is  such  an  end- 
less variety  of  topics  in  geography  that-  some  sort  of 
selection  is  imperative.  In  making  this  selection  the 
teacher  must  weigh  the  relative  worth  of  facts  and  pick 
out  those  which  have  a  commanding  influence  ;  for  exam- 
ple, the  St.  Lawrence  River  in  Canada,  lumbering  in 
New  England,  coal  and  iron  in  Pennsylvania,  and  the 
Erie  Canal  in  New  York.  The  Great  Lakes  have  a  dom- 
inating influence  upon  the  climate  and  commerce  of  the 
richest  part  of  Central  North  America.  Such  a  large  topic 
as  this,  studied  in  its  important  influence  and  relations,  is, 
in  reality,  a  key  which  unlocks  one  great  door  of  knowl- 
edge. 

Such  a  topic  also  admits  of  a  logical  sequence  and  organ- 
ization of  facts  which  calls  for  good  thought  work  both  in 
teacher  and  pupils.  It  is  in  marked  contrast  to  a  frag- 
mentary and  superficial  accumulation  of  geographical  facts 
without  any  strong  unifying  thread.  This  subject,  the 
Great  Lakes,  makes  it  necessary  for  the  teacher  to  think 
out  a  connected  series  of  important  topics  dealing  with 


AND   OTHER   CONTINENTS  47 

the  physical  features,  the  climatic  conditions,  the  navi- 
gable waters  in  commerce,  the  falls,  rapids,  and  canals,  the 
series  of  lake  and  river  ports  with  reason  for  their  loca- 
tion, the  products  shipped  back  and  forth  over  this  trade 
route,  and  the  sources  from  which  they  are  drawn.  This 
exercise  in  logical  thinking  in  the  organization  of  complex 
material  into  connected  series  not  only  teaches  the  main 
geographical  facts,  but  explains  their  meaning  and  relative 
importance. 

3.  In  many  cases  the  central  thread  which  binds  to- 
gether this  large  body  of  varied  material  is  the  idea  of 
cause  and  effect.  One  topic  leads  of  necessity  into  another, 
and  so  on  to  a  third  and  fourth,  through  a  whole  series. 
Such  a  causal  idea  brings  together,  into  one  central  topic, 
a  body  of  closely  connected  facts  drawn  from  several 
sources,  —  physical,  commercial,  historical,  and  industrial. 
Nearly  every  important  geographical  unit,  when  properly 
organized,  is  just  such  a  combination  of  diverse  elements 
held  together  by  strong  causal  relations.  It  is  wholly 
artificial  and  unnatural  to  isolate  these  various  parts  of  a 
complex  subject  from  one  another  and  to  treat  them  sepa- 
rately. Isolation,  for  example,  of  the  physical  facts  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  system  from  the  commercial,  industrial,  and 
political  geography,  gives  the  facts  without  cause  or  rela- 
tion, and  out  of  their  proper  setting  and  meaning. 

The  virtue  of  the  causal  idea  lies  in  the  child's  perceiv- 
ing that  the  physical  conditions  produced,  for  example,  by 
the  Great  Lakes  and  the  St.  Lawrence  River  together  with 
the  other  physical  facts  of  this  region,  have  directly  influ- 
enced men  in  their  industries,  such  as  lumbering,  mining, 
fishing,  commerce,  etc.,  also  in  the  location  of  their  cities, 
and  in  determining  the  trade  routes  which  are  so  very  im- 


48  NORTH  AMERICA 

portant  to  all  the  inhabitants  of  this  region.  It  will  not 
do,  therefore,  to  treat  the  cities  and  trade  routes  as  dis- 
tinct topics,  and  the  lakes,  forests,  and  surface  features 
likewise  as  isolated  topics,  without  much  reference  to  the 
intimate  and  organic  interdependence  among  them. 

The  political  divisions  into  states  and  nations  form 
larger  complex  units  of  study.  In  the  treatment  of  geog- 
raphy these  states  and  national  units  have  played  an  im- 
portant part.  They  have  been  so  much  used  in  maps  and 
descriptions  of  countries  that  they  have  become  the  most 
convenient  means  for  designating  certain  areas.  When 
we  speak  of  California  or  Texas  or  Maine,  of  Spain  or 
Italy  or  British  India,  we  designate  certain  political  and 
territorial  units  more  clearly  than  in  any  other  way.  The 
universal  usage  of  books  and  of  educated  people  has  fixed 
these  divisions  in  our  language  and  in  our  thought,  and 
we  may  ask  ourselves  what  reasons  can  be  assigned  for 
their  continued  use  as  the  titles  of  important  geographical 
topics. 

First,  as  political  units  they  are  important,  and  when 
synonymous  with  nationality  they  have  characteristic  marks 
which  give  them  importance  and  distinguish  them  from 
all  others.  France,  Spain,  Italy,  and  England  are  not  only 
separate  political  units,  but  there  is  in  each  also  a  unity  of 
life  in  commerce,  language,  custom,  history,  and  literature ; 
and,  to  a  large  extent,  there  is  even  a  distinct  physiogra- 
phy. Paris,  as  the  capital  of  France,  is  the  centre  of  the 
national  life,  not  only  in  government,  but  also  in  commerce, 
manufacturing,  education,  literature,  and  fashion.  In  a 
similar  way  London  and  Berlin,  Constantinople  and  Mos- 
cow, are  great  centres  of  national  life.  In  short,  a  nation 
is  a  large  complex  unit,  and  the  series  of  nationalities,  such 


AND   OTHER   CONTINENTS  49 

as  England,  the  United  States,  Russia,  China,  etc.,  must 
always  constitute  a  most  important  series  of  geographical 
topics. 

It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  treat  these  nationalities  or 
political  units,  in  many  cases,  as  separate  topics,  since  they 
form  convenient  centres  around  which  to  collect  and  group 
a  variety  of  lesser  topics. 

Berlin,  for  instance,  the  political  capital  of  Germany, 
has  become  also  the  commercial  and  railroad  centre  of 
the  empire.  The  military  system  of  Germany,  so  sig- 
nificant in  the  politics  of  Europe,  is  best  explained  as 
centring  in  Berlin.  Education  also  has  here  its  admin- 
istrative head,  and  the  great  University  of  Berlin  is  the 
nucleus  of  the  whole  school  system.  The  art  treasures 
of  Germany,  also,  find  in  the  museums  and  galleries  at  the 
capital  their  most  important  collections  and  schools  of 
training. 

This  prominence  of  political  units  is  noticeable  at  the 
beginning,  at  the  end,  and  throughout  the  course  of 
geographical  study.  In  the  earliest  survey  of  North 
America  as  a  whole,  we  call  the  attention,  among  other 
things,  to  the  three  chief  political  divisions,  British 
America,  United  States,  and  Mexico ;  and  the  same  plan 
will  be  followed  in  the  study  of  Europe  and  other  conti- 
nents. Again,  in  completing  the  study  of  any  country,  we 
combine  a  multitude  of  minor  topics  into  one  large  com- 
plex unit  like  France  or  Turkey.  The  reason  for  this  is 
the  fact  that  our  geographical  topics  are,  to  a  large  extent, 
social  units,  rather  than  physical  or  scientific  units.  A 
nationality  like  England  or  Switzerland  grasps  into  one 
thought  a  great  variety  of  closely  related  elements,  or 
rather  it  is  a  cross-section  of  all  the  important  elements. 


50  NORTH  AMERICA 

Geography  is  a  complex  study,  and  not  a  series  of  scientific 
units  drawn  from  physiography,  meteorology,  geology, 
astronomy,  and  biology.  There  has  been  a  strong  ten- 
dency to  treat  geography  from  the  standpoint  of  these 
distinct  sciences ;  but  the  important  geographical  units  are. 
those  which  combine  all  of  these,  more  or  less,  into  a 
single  topic  of  causally  connected  parts. 

The  physiographic  topics,  like  physical  structure,  geo- 
logical strata  and  changes,  river  action,  etc.,  are  in  much 
danger  of  standing  out  in  isolation  from  those  industrial, 
political,  and  social  phenomena  which  form  an  important 
constituent  of  most  geographic  topics.  It  is  claimed,  of 
course,  that  physiography  explains  so  many  things  broadly, 
on  the  basis  of  cause  and  effect,  that  its  topics  must  be 
treated  first  and  in  full.  But  it  is  a  pedagogical  error 
to  explain  so  many  things  in  a  general,  more  or  less  abstract 
form,  before  the  children  have  come  in  contact  with  the 
facts  which  need  explaining.  The  adult  and  scientific 
mind  sees  in  these  great  physical  causes  the  explanation 
of  a  multitude  of  minor  facts,  and  is  greatly  interested  in 
such  a  broad  survey  of  causal  influences.  But  the  child 
has  no  such  interest  because  he  is  incapable  of  such  broad 
generalizations  and  inferences.  In  short,  it  is  the  imposi- 
tion of  the  adult  standpoint  upon  the  child. 

It  seems  advisable  to  begin  the  study  of  any  important 
region  or  country  by  a  brief  survey  of  physical  and  climatic 
conditions.  But  the  important  thing,  after  all,  is  to  bring 
these  physical  causes  into  close  relation  to  the  special  topics 
at  the  time  when  they  are  treated  in  full.  For  example, 
when  we  are  discussing  the  fruit-raising  of  Florida  and 
California,  we  should  enter  definitely  and  fully  into  the 
physical  surroundings  and  climatic  conditions  favorable  to 


AND   OTHER    CONTINENTS  51 

fruit-growing.  The  effort  to  explain  all  these  things  by 
anticipation,  when  dealing  with  the  physiographic  fea- 
tures of  North  America,  would  be  a  mistake.  Likewise 
in  explaining  the  arid  regions  of  the  West,  it  should  be 
done  chiefly  at  the  time  when  irrigation  is  under  full 
treatment,  so  that  the  cause  and  effect  upon  human  life 
and  industry  may  be  immediately  felt. 

Even  the  smaller  political  units  expressed  by  the  names 
of  our  states  are  of  much  value,  sometimes,  because  they 
express  somewhat  distinct  physical  units,  as  in  the  case  of 
California,  Florida,  Illinois,  and  Maine;  or,  when  formed 
into  groups  like  New  England  or  the  Gulf  States  or  the 
Rocky  Mountain  States,  they  designate  distinct  physical 
divisions  of  country. 

Again,  in  treating  topics  like  the  corn  belt,  the  cotton- 
growing  area,  the  coal-fields,  the  forest  regions,  etc.,  we 
have  no  way  of  locating  these  regions  except  by  states. 
We  draw  the  map  of  a  group  of  states  and  locate  within 
them  the  tobacco-growing  districts,  etc. 

It  seems,  therefore,  that  these  are  important  reasons  why 
the  political  divisions  into  states  and  countries  should  con- 
tinue to  constitute  an  important  series  of  geographical 
topics.  We  may,  indeed,  drop  out  a  large  part  of  the 
old  minutiae  of  political  map  studies,  such  as  the  names  and 
location  of  the  capitals  of  all  the  states,  the  exact  bound- 
aries of  each  separate  state,  and  the  drawing  of  the  special 
maps  of  each.  The  time  thus  saved  can  be  better  devoted 
to  topics  which  extend  through  several  states,  or  to  those 
topics  which  are  characteristically  important  in  any  one 
state  or  group. 

Nor  is  it  meant  by  this  emphasis  of  state  geography 
that  we  shall  make  a  miscellaneous  catalogue  of  products 


52  NORTH  AMERICA 

for  each  state,  to  be  memorized  by  the  children.  For  ex- 
ample, in  connection  with  New  York  State  to  learn  that  it 
produces  corn,  wheat,  grapes,  salt,  petroleum,  lumber, 
apples,  dairy  products,  oysters,  farm  machinery,  garden 
truck,  iron  goods,  and  a  multitude  of  other  manufactured 
articles. 

In  planning  the  study  of  any  large  political  unit  like 
France,  we  should  consider,  not  only  the  physiographic 
and  climatic  conditions,  but  we  should  select  for  somewhat 
elaborate  description  a  few  prominent  topics  which  bring 
out,  in  a  striking  way,  the  pronounced  characteristics  of  the 
people  and  country.  Paris  as  a  centre  of  art,  fashion,  and 
amusement,  the  production  of  wine,  the  manufacture  of 
silk,  give  us  that  small  group  of  topics  whose  full  descrip- 
tion will  bring  out  the  pronounced  characteristics  in  city 
and  in  country  life.  The  architecture,  style,  and  gayety 
of  the  French  capital,  arid  on  the  other  hand,  the  vineyards, 
peasant  life,  and  sunny  fields  of  the  open  country,  are 
pictured. 

In  Germany  a  quite  different  series  of  characteristic 
topics  would  be  selected.  The  German  army  and  military 
system,  with  the  emperor  at  its  head,  the  opera,  popular 
concerts,  and  beer-gardens,  the  Rhine  River,  the  beet-sugar 
industry,  and  the  great  iron  manufactures  on  the  lower 
Rhine  may  serve  as  central  topics. 

A  few  characteristic  topics  in  each  country,  fully  de- 
scribed, give  a  more  distinct  notion  of  the  nation  as  a 
whole  than  a  catalogue  of  products,  industries,  etc.,  such 
as  has  been  customary  in  our  geographies. 

In  the  real  world,  outside  of  school  books,  we  find  every 
great  geographical  topic  springing  out  of  complex  condi- 
tions. To  be  understood,  it  must  be  studied  in  its  causes 


AND   OTHER   CONTINENTS  53 

and  relations  to  man  and  to  nature.  The  effort  to  unravel 
the  causal  idea  hidden  in  these  facts  brings  out  the  cen- 
tral influences  that  are  at  work  in  physical  geography,  in 
commerce,  and  in  history.  The  outcome  is  a  causal  series 
of  mutually  dependent  facts  as  illustrated  above. 

The  effort  to  trace  out  causes  and  effects  is  a  source  of 
strong  interest  and  of  close  thinking.  It  goes  far  deeper 
into  the  interpretation  of  phenomena  than  the  mere  learn- 
ing of  facts.  Especially  for  the  three  upper  grades,  the 
sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth,  is  the  study  of  causal  ideas  and 
causal  connections  a  fine  stimulus  to  mental  activity. 
Geography  furnishes  two  sets  of  causal  forces,  one  spring- 
ing from  physical  nature  and  the  other  from  man  and  his 
enterprise.  It  is  quite  evident  that,  by  linking  together 
and  interpreting  facts  on  the  basis  of  cause  and  effect,  a 
much  better  understanding  is  gained  of  the  great  forces  at 
work  in  the  world. 

4.  In  connection  with  the  causal  idea  it  is  easy  to  set  up 
problems  for  solution  which  give  us  the  best  forms  of  men- 
tal discipline.  In  any  important  topic,  when  certain  facts 
have  been  presented,  interesting  questions  or  problems 
can  be  set  up  which  require  the  pupil  to  combine  and 
interpret  facts.  This  is  especially  true  of  all  the  great 
human  industries,  such  as  mining,  manufacturing,  and  agri- 
culture. We  have  as  distinctly  marked  problems  in  geo- 
graphical study  as  in  arithmetic.  For  example  :  Explain 
fully  why  Pittsburg  is  an  important  centre  for  the  iron 
industries.  Again  :  In  shipping  grain,  meat,  and  heavy 
products  from  Chicago  to  Europe,  what  is  the  best  way  of 
getting  around  Niagara  Falls  ?  What  is  the  best  railroad 
route  between  New  York  and  San  Francisco,  and  why  ? 
Which  is  the  best  water  route  from  Lake  Erie  to  the 


54  NORTH  AMERICA 

Atlantic,  the  .  Welland  Canal,  Lake  Ontario,  and  the  St. 
Lawrence  River,  or  the  Erie  Canal  and  the  Hudson  River  ? 
What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  establishing 
cotton  factories  at  Atlanta  and  Augusta,  in  the  South,  as 
compared  with  those  at  Lowell  and  Fall  River  in  Massa- 
chusetts ?  How  is  it  possible  to  get  irrigating  water  from 
rivers  up  to  the  level  of  dry  lands  which  lie  considerably 
above  the  surface  of  the  rivers  ?  Why  has  the  Colorado 
River  deeper  and  longer  canons  than  any  other  great  river 
in  North  America  ?  How  can  the  water  in  small  rivers  be 
deepened  and  made  navigable  for  small  steamboats  and 
canal -boats?  Geography,  in  all  sorts  of  topics,  bristles 
with  such  interesting  questions.  The  teacher  may  state 
these  problems  with  sufficient  explanation  of  the  condi- 
tions involved,  so  that  the  children  may  think  out  impor- 
tant results  and  conclusions.  To  answer  these  and  similar 
questions  the  student  must  gather  the  facts  together  and 
organize  them,  compare  and  balance  different  sets  of  facts, 
and  draw  important  inferences.  The  student  who  gets 
into  the  habit  of  working  out  such  problems  is  acquiring 
a  certain  independence  and  self-reliance  in  thinking. 
Moreover,  the  data  for  his  thinking  consist  of  the  undis- 
puted facts,  the  realities  of  life,  as  shown  in  industrial, 
commercial,  and  political  affairs.  There  is  a  very  broad 
distinction  in  geographical  study  between  memorizing 
facts  and  locations  on  the  one  side,  and  the  working  out  of 
problems  on  the  basis  of  cause  and  effect  on  the  other. 
Not  only  is  this  a  source  of  stronger  interest  and  better 
thinking,  but  it  binds  the  ideas  together  more  firmly  in  the 
memory,  and  makes  such  knowledge  more  serviceable  in 
interpreting  the  world  about  us. 

A  superficial  observation  of  children  might  suggest  that 


AND  OTHER   CONTINENTS  55 

they  are  chiefly  interested  in  facts,  and  not  in  deeper-lying 
causes,  but  in  the  last  four  grades,  the  fifth,  sixth,  seventh, 
and  eighth,  if  not  sooner,  they  are  naturally  inquisitive 
about  the  reason  and  cause  of  things.  Unless  their  school- 
ing has  been  very  poor,  they  like  to  probe  into  these  ques- 
tions, and  for  the  skilful  teacher  here  lies  the  spur  to  a 
true  interest  and  to  a  strong  effort  on  their  part.  In  the 
lumber  business  it  is  a  source  of  interest  to  see  how  the 
logs  are  gotten  out  of  the  woods  and  brought  to  the  river 
banks  in  winter,  how  the  skidding  roads  are  skilfully 
laid  out  for  this  purpose,  why  the  rivers,  in  springtime, 
are  specially  useful,  where  the  sawmills  are  located  and 
why,  and  how  the  lumber  is  distributed  to  the  prairie 
regions.  At  every  step  in  the  movement  we  meet  the 
same  problems  which  the  lumberman  is  compelled  to  meet 
and  solve.  This  kind  of  work  commands  the  unbounded 
confidence  of  children,  because  it  is  so  real  and  tangible, 
so  true  to  the  conditions  of  life. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  geographical  topics  admit- 
ting of  this  problem-solving  study.  In  the  raising  of  beet 
roots  for  sugar  we  pass  from  the  farm  to  the  factory  and 
refinery,  thence  to  commerce  and  distribution  over  great 
traffic  routes.  The  same  with  all  other  staple  agricul- 
tural products  in  various  parts  of  the  world.  The  study 
of  iron  mines  and  the^  production  of  raw  ore,  the  shipment 
of  ore  to  the  centres  of  iron  manufacture,  its  treatment  in 
blast  furnaces,  mills,  and  factories  of  all  sorts,  and  the  dis- 
tribution of  iron  machines  and  products  by  commerce,  — 
all  these  likewise  show  the  operation  of  causes,  and  the 
forethought  and  ingenuity  of  men  in  meeting  and  solving 
difficult  problems.  The  coal-mines,  silver-mines,  and  other 
metal-producing  mines  furnish  similar  problems. 


56  NORTH  AMERICA 

The  full  study  of  any  important  topic  in  geography 
penetrates  into  the  deeper  and  more^  important  connec- 
tions, not  only  of  geographical  facts,  but  of  many  facts  be- 
longing to  other  studies  which  are  wrapped  up  with  these. 
For  example,  in  the  discussion  of  the  iron  industries,  the 
sources  from  which  iron  and  coal  and  lime  are  obtained 
touch  on  geology  and  mineralogy.  The  process  of  smelt- 
ing, a  very  interesting  study,  deals  with  chemistry  and 
the  effects  of  heat.  Likewise  the  processes  of  producing 
steel  and  wrought  iron.  Again,  the  manufacture  of  iron 
goods,  such  as  wire,  steam-engines,  agricultural  imple- 
ments, bridges,  etc.,  deals  with  interesting  inventions 
touching  on  history,  physics,  and  chemistry,  and  various 
phases  of  geography.  This  naturally  brings  up  the  great 
problem  of  correlation  or  interconnection  of  studies.  The 
only  point  which  we  wish  to  emphasize  is  that  of  the  pres- 
ence of  strong  causal  relations,  which  bind  together  the 
different  parts  of  an  important  topic,  and  give  opportu- 
nity for  setting  up  problems  in  school  work  which  are  in 
fact  identical  with  the  problems  of  business  men,  manu- 
facturers, shippers,  and  capitalists  in  the  world  of  industry 
and  trade. 

In  any  proper  treatment  of  such  large  geographical 
topics  it  is  impossible  to  avoid  this  apparent  mixing  up  of 
studies,  but  the  whole  difficulty  is  solved  by  the  teacher 
who  knows  how  to  work  out  a  connected  series  of  points 
necessary  to  the  logical  development  of  a  controlling  idea 
or  process.  When  such  a  controlling  idea  is  present  in 
the  mind  of  a  teacher,  all  these  complex  materials  are 
brought  easily  into  coherency  and  unity. 

An  example  of  this  connected  sequence  of  topics  is  the 
section  on  Physiography  of  North  America.  The  general 


AND   OTHER   CONTINENTS  57 

growth  of  the  North  American  continent  involves  a  series 
of  topics  like  the  coal  period,  the  mountains,  the  central 
plain,  the  great  ice  age,  and  the  coast  line.  In  its  very 
nature  this  is  a  historical  development  from  one  stage  to 
another,  the  first  stage  leading  to  the  second,  and  so  on. 
The  causal  idea  is  the  controlling  one,  for  example,  in  the 
following  series.  How  the  coal  strata  are  formed,  —  the 
climatic  conditions,  the  vegetation,  the  rising  and  sinking 
of  the  land  with  reference  to  the  sea  level,  the  swamps, 
and  matted  vegetation.  At  every  step  here  we  find  new 
examples  of  causes  and  effects,  of  conditions  and  changes, 
leading  to  positive  results.  The  study  of  the  ice  age  of 
North  America  is  of  the  same  character.  In  interpreting  the 
history  of  the  great  ice  sheet,  scientists  have  based  their  con- 
clusions upon  facts  and  results  which  can  be  unmistakably 
traced  to  their  causes.  Problems  have  been  met  and  solved 
at  every  point  in  the  investigation  ;  for  example,  how 
the  numerous  lakes  are  formed  in  Minnesota,  how  the 
granite  boulders  and  drifts  were  spread  out  over  Illinois 
and  other  states.  In  order  to  teach  these  topics  well,  the 
instructor  must  take  the  attitude  of  the  investigator,  col- 
lect his  facts  around  certain  questions,  and  give  the  chil- 
dren the  chance  to  draw  important  inferences  for  which 
abundant  data  are  furnished.  The  same  strong  thread 
of  logical  and  causal  sequence  which  furnishes  the  back- 
bone of  good  thinking  is  found  in  the  treatment  of  the 
seasons,  the  winds,  the  ocean  currents,  and  other  topics 
of  physical  geography. 

When  we  come  to  the  more  definite  and  limited  topics  of 
the  different  sections  of  the  United  States,  we  find  that 
there  is  a  special  strength  and  value  in  tracing  the  opera- 
tion of  causes  and  in  working  out  the  solution  of  problems. 


58  NORTH  AMERICA 

For  example,  the  subject  of  forestry  in  New  England  fol- 
lows the  same  sequence  of  causal  relations  which  the  lum- 
bering industry  in  Maine  presents.  The  topic  on  mining 
in  the  Middle  Atlantic  States  not  only  reveals  the  facts  in 
regard  to  the  location  of  coal,  iron  ore,  oil,  and  gas,  and 
the  cities  where  iron  manufacturing  is  carried  on,  but  the 
whole  movement  from  the  crude  ore  in  the  mountains  to 
the  smelters  and  manufactories  at  the  centre  of  iron  pro- 
duction (Pittsburg,  Birmingham,  etc.),  the  manifold 
forms  of  iron  manufacture  and  their  distribution,  —  all 
these  things  are  traced  out  in  a  necessary  sequence.  We 
may  say,  in  one  sense,  that  this  kind  of  study  is  thoroughly 
practical,  not  simply  because  it  is  a  true  picture  of  great 
industries,  giving  real  insight  into  the  world  around  us, 
but  because  children  are  thus  taught  to  think  and  reason, 
logically  obedient  to  the  inflexible  requirements  of  nature 
and  physical  and  social  conditions. 

This  kind  of  logical  consistency  and  steady  coherency 
of  thought  is  illustrated  by  all  the  important  topics  treated 
in  the  geography  of  the  United  States  and  North  America. 

5.  Of  equal  importance  with  the  idea  of  causal  sequence, 
and  with  the  opportunity  for  problem-setting  in  following 
causal  relations,  is  the  idea  of  types  in  geographical  study. 
These  important  units  of  study  which  we  have  described 
as  valuable  centres  around  which  to  collect  and  organize 
facts,  have  a  still  greater  value  when  looked  at  from-  the 
standpoint  of  their  typical  or  representative  character. 
If  children  have  obtained  a  clear  understanding  of  the 
glacial  ice  sheet  in  North  America,  and  of  its  effects  on 
soils,  rivers,  and  lakes,  it  is  an  easy  matter,  on  the  basis  of 
this  previous  study,  to  explain  the  similar  glacial  period 
in  Europe,  where  like  causes  have  produced  like  results, 


AND   OTHER   CONTINENTS  59 

and  so  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  Again,  if  the  children 
have  studied  the  great  canon  of  the  Colorado  River  and 
the  causes  of  this  most  striking  example  of  the  erosive 
power  of  water,  tracing  back  the  causes  to  the  location  of 
mountain  chains,  plateaus,  and  slopes,  to  winds  and  rains 
on.  the  mountains,  and  to  the  dry  climatic  conditions  of  the 
great  western  plateau  ;  in  short,  if  they  have  thoroughly 
understood  the  causes  that  have  produced  the  Colorado 
carton, '  it  will  be  very  easy  and  interesting  for  them  to 
explain  the  trough  of  the  upper  Mississippi,  the  valley  of 
the  Hudson,  the  gorges  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube,  the 
Kongo  canons  on  the  western  rim  of  Africa,  and  the  great 
gorges  of  the  Brahmaputra  and  other  canon  rivers  of  the 
Himalaya. 

In  connection  with  the  gold  mining  of  Colorado  the 
children  have  gained  a  clear  understanding  of  placer  mines 
and  of  the  washing  out  of  gold  from  the  sands,  and  further 
of  the  quartz  mining,  by  sinking  shafts  in  the  veins  of  the 
rocks,  by  means  of  which  the  miners  penetrate  deep  into 
the  bowels  of  the  earth.  They  appreciate  the  difficulties, 
hardships,  uncertainties,  and  expense  of  these  operations. 
Later  they  see  how  the  ore  is  crushed  to  powder  in  the 
stamp  mills,  and  then  shipped  in  sacks  to  the  great  smelt- 
ers at  Pueblo  and  Denver.  There  the  pure  gold  and  sil- 
ver and  other  metals  are  extracted  and  separated  from  one 
another  by  heat.  The  bullion  thus  produced  is  shipped 
to  the  mints  and  changed  into  coin,  or  is  sent  to  the 
factories  where  gold  and  silver  wares  are  manufactured. 
If  children  have  traced  this  great  movement  from  the 
crude  ore  to  the  finest  products  of  our  factories  and  stores, 
it  will  be  thereafter  a  very  short  matter  to  explain  the 
gold  and  silver  mines  of  Europe,  of  South  Africa,  of 


60  NORTH  AMERICA 

Australia,  of  South  America,  and  to  reach  an  understand- 
ing of  their  importance  in  commerce  and  the  industries. 

It  would  not  be  difficult  to  multiply  illustrations  of  geo- 
graphical type-studies  in  the  United  States  and  the  rest 
of  North  America,  which  furnish  a  sure  basis  for  a  quick 
interpretation  of  all  similar  topics  in  other  parts  of  the 
world.  We  will  merely  mention  a  few  of  these  types  to 
show  how  valuable  and  rich  is  this  mode  of  study.  Such 
types  are  corn  production,  and  its  relation  to  cattle  and 
meat  products,  irrigation  in  the  arid  regions  of  the  West, 
cotton  raising  and  cotton  manufacturing  in  the  South,  the 
Mississippi  River  as  a  navigable  stream,  cattle-raising  on 
the  western  plains,  fruit-farming  in  California,  Mt. 
Washington  and  the  White  Mountains,  the  Great  Lakes, 
cod  fisheries  on  the  banks  of  Newfoundland,  the  oyster 
fisheries  of  the  Chesapeake,  cane  sugar  in  Louisiana  and 
Cuba,  the  City  of  Mexico,  San  Francisco  as  a  seaport, 
Salt  Lake  and  the  Great  Basin,  Pike's  Peak  and  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  the  seal  fisheries  of  Alaska,  and  many  others. 
Every  one  of  these  topics  is  important  as  a  centre  of  study, 
around  which  a  large  body  of  facts  may  be  collected  and 
explained,  but  far  beyond  this  each  of  these  topics  consid- 
ered as  a  type  is  a  means,  in  the  mind  of  a  child,  of  inter- 
preting quickly  a  great  many  important  objects  of  study 
in  many  parts  of  the  world.  The  knowledge  of  such  rep- 
resentative topics  in  American  geography  furnishes  the 
children  with  a  complete  outfit  for  a  rapid  survey  and 
mastery  of  the  rest  of  the  world.  The  larger  amount  of 
time  thus  spent  on  American  geography  is  more  than  com- 
pensated by  the  depth  and  richness  of  knowledge  gained 
about  our  country,  and  by  the  quickness  with  which  for- 
eign topics  can  be  later  interpreted  by  these  type-studies. 


AND   OTHER   CONTINENTS  61 

Each  geographical  type  is  in  its  first  treatment  very 
individual  and  concrete.  And  this  concreteness  lends 
interest  and  a  strong  sense  of  realism  to  the  study.  For 
example,  the  study  of  Mt.  Washington  as  a  mountain 
resort,  with  the  inns  and  villages  at  its  foot,  the  railroad 
to  the  top,  the  Summit  House,  and  the  views  along  the 
Presidential  range,  is  full  of  picturesque  and  concrete 
realities.  They  are  such  as  the  traveller  experiences  on 
his  journeys.  The  treatment  of  geographical  topics  is 
oftentimes  so  general  and  comprehensive  that  these  inter- 
esting details  are  left  out,  and  is  therefore  weak  and  power- 
less to  arouse  the  attention  of  children. 

But  wrapped  up  in  these  concrete  facts  are  representa- 
tive or  typical  ideas  which  are  brought  out  by  the  com- 
parison of  similar  objects.  A  type-subject  is  the  basis  for 
a  series  of  comparisons,  which  leads  oftentimes  to  a  sweep- 
ing general  notion  which  gives  comprehensiveness  and 
unity  to  a  large  body  of  more  or  less  scattered  facts.  It 
seems  strange  how  little  attention  has  been  paid  heretofore 
to  the  worth  of  a  geographical  type.  Once  understood,  it 
is  a  means  of  interpreting  quickly  scores  of  similar  things 
elsewhere.  We  have  been  so  occupied  with  memorizing 
bare  facts  in  geography  as  to  forget  that  the  chief  purpose 
and  value,  lay  not  in  memorizing,  but  understanding  the 
facts.  The  intelligence  of  children  is  increased  by  their 
insight  and  their  power  to  interpret  the  meaning  of  things 
rather  than  by  the  quantity  of  names  they  have  memorized. 
If  a  child  understands  how  an  irrigating  ditch  is  constructed 
along  one  river  valley  to  enrich  arid  lands,  he  possesses 
thereby  an  idea  which  will  speedily  interpret  to  him  the 
means  by  which  agriculture  is  made  possible  in  hundreds 
of  places  or  along  hundreds  of  streams  in  the  western  half 


62  NORTH  AMERICA 

of  the  United  States.  The  same  is  true  in  India,  China, 
in  Mexico  and  South  America,  and  in  many  other  arid 
regions  on  the  borders  of  the  great  Saharas  of  the  world. 
Such  a  type  which  possesses  within  itself  the  power  of 
interpreting  a  multitude  of  things  in  many  lands  is 
educationally  of  the  highest  value.  By  comparison  of 
similar  rivers  or  similar  cities  or  mountains,  the  type-idea 
common  to  them  all  springs  into  view.  If  we  are  careful 
to  select  the  best  types,  and,  after  treating  each  one  fully, 
to  make  sufficient  comparisons  to  bring  out  the  variations 
of  the  type  in  different  countries,  we  shall  acquire  a  speedy 
insight  into  the  main  lines  of  geographical  knowledge.  The 
original  type,  worked  out  in  more  complete  detail  than  the 
others,  becomes  the  standard  of  measurement  for  a  host  of 
similar  things  in  later  geographical  study.  The  enlarge- 
ment, extension,  and  variation  of  a  typical  idea  by  means 
of  comparisons  furnishes  the  children  a  good  opportu- 
nity for  associating  similar  groups  of  knowledge  ;  that  is, 
for  thinking,  reasoning,  and  organizing  knowledge. 

These  comparisons,  on  the  basis  of  fully  developed  types, 
furnish  the  most  instructive  form  of  review.  If  in  the 
study  of  the  Rhine  River,  we  compare  it  with  the  Hudson 
in  point  of  physiography,  scenery,  cities,  commerce,  mili- 
tary importance,  and  historical  associations,  the  children 
will  be  surprised  at  the  number  of  striking  resemblances. 
For  example,  both  the  Rhine  and  the  Hudson  have  each 
three  canals  connecting  their  waters  with  other  navigable 
streams.  They  bring  into  comparison  two  of  the  chief 
commercial  routes  of  Europe  and  North  America;  the 
fortresses  and  military  history  of  both  rivers  are  famous. 
They  are  about  equally  noted  for  the  beauty  of  their 
scenery.  The  legendary  stories  and  historical  events 


AND   OTHER   CONTINENTS  63 

along  the  Rhine  are  matched  by  the  Indian  legends,  the 
Irving  stories,  and  the  historical  narratives  of  Henry 
Hudson  and  Washington.  The  differences  and^contrasts 
come  out  also  in  a  striking  way  in  these  comparisons. 
The  delta  mouth  of  the  Rhine  is  in  strong  contrast 
with  the  New  York  harbor  and  the  outlet  of  the  Hud- 
son. The  Hudson,  though  onl}7  about  a  third  as  long 
as  the  Rhine,  is  deeper  and  broader  and  more  service- 
able for  shipping  than  the  Rhine,  because  it  is  a 
drowned  valley,  into  which  the  tides  of  the  ocean  pene- 
trate for  many  miles.  The  lofty  Alps  are  in  contrast  to 
the  Adirondacks  where  the  sources  of  the  Hudson  lie. 

A  comparison  of  the  whole  Mississippi  with  the  whole 
St.  Lawrence  and  with  the  Colorado  brings  out,  with 
remarkable  clearness,  three  of  the  diverse  types  of  large 
rivers  :  the  Mississippi,  navigable  throughout  its  length 
and  that  of  its  tributaries,  but  its  mouth  obstructed  by  its 
delta  and  wide  bars  of  silt ;  the  St.  Lawrence  with  its  series 
of  vast  lakes  in  its  upper  course,  wholly  different  from 
the  Mississippi,  its  middle  course  obstructed  by  the  Falls 
of  Niagara,  and  its  mouth  a  deep  and  open  estuary  of  the 
sea;  the  Colorado  with  neither  lakes  nor  delta,  almost 
unnavigable,  and  with  a  series  of  canons  like  nothing  either 
along  the  Mississippi  or  St.  Lawrence.  Such  comparisons 
bring  out  with  remarkable  distinctness  the  singularities,  as 
well  as  the  common  features  of  great  rivers.  This  review  by 
comparison  of  old  topics  with  new  is  vigorous  and  stimu- 
lating to  thought.  It  throws  new  light  upon  old  facts  and 
interprets  swiftly  new  things.  It  groups  and  consolidates 
geographical  materials  along  essential  lines. 

The  question  naturally  arises  whether  such  types  cover 
the  whole  field  of  geographical  study,  and  whether  such  a 


64  NORTH  AMERICA 

series  of  studies  does  not  leave  a  child's  knowledge  frag- 
mentary and  incomplete.  In  the  first  place  there  is  great 
variety  of  type  studies,  and  there  are,  as  noticed  above,  sev- 
eral distinct  types  of  rivers.  There  are  tidal  rivers,  like  the 
Hudson,  the  Thames,  the  St.  Lawrence,  etc.  ;  there  are  the 
delta  rivers  like  the  Rhine,  the  Mississippi,  the  Ganges, 
the  Nile,  and  others  ;  there  are  canon  rivers  like  the  Col- 
orado, Brahmaputra,  and  the  Kongo  ;  navigable  rivers,  like 
the  Mississippi,  Yangtse,  and  Amazon;  there  are  the  rivers 
noted  for  water-power  like  the  Merrimac,  the  Upper  Mis- 
sissippi, and  the  rivers  of  Maine. 

Again,  there  are  various  types  of  cities,  as,  for  example, 
the  commercial  centres,  Chicago,  New  York,  and  Liver- 
pool ;  centres  for  government,  like  Washington,  Berlin, 
and  Rome  ;  centres  for  manufactories,  like  Pittsburg,  Man- 
chester, and  Lyon.  Each  of  these  is  typical  of  the  group 
to  which  it  belongs.  So,  also,  in  other  geographical  topics, 
mountains,  lakes,  industries,  deserts,  trade  routes,  oceans, 
.winds,  continents,  etc.,  through  all  the  list  of  geographical 
facts,  it  is  easy  to  group  under  the  head  of  various  leading 
types. 

And  yet  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  make  a  selection  of 
leading  types  which  will  cover  completely  that  general 
body  of  knowledge  which  belongs  to  geography.  There 
is  some  danger  that  in  devoting  a  large  amount  of  time  to 
the  study  of  a  few  types  many  important  things  will  be 
omitted.  Of  course,  it  is  impossible  to  treat  all  the  im- 
portant cities,  rivers,  occupations,  and  regions  of  country 
with  such  fulness  as  marks  the  type  studies,  and  it  is 
necessary  in  some  way  to  make  good  this  deficiency.  It 
is  hardly  worth  while  to  memorize  the  names  and  loca- 
tions of  a  dozen  or  more  cities  in  each  of  the  forty-five 


AND   OTHER   CONTINENTS  65 

states,  and  yet  it  is  desirable  to  name  and  locate  a  half- 
dozen  of  the  chief  lake  ports,  as  Duluth,  Milwaukee,  Chi- 
cago, Detroit,  Cleveland,  Buffalo,  and  Toronto,  and  to  give 
the  reasons  for  their  importance. 

To  supplement  and  complete  the  work  with  types  we 
need  comprehensive  surveys,  reviews,  and  drills.  Other- 
wise the  types  stand  isolated  and  unrelated  to  one  another, 
and  large  bodies  of  important  facts  seem  to  be  overlooked. 
Every  important  type  study,  before  it  reaches  completion, 
should  bring  within  the  circle  of  its  discussion  the  whole 
body  of  facts  which  is  typified  by  it.  For  example,  in 
treating  the  sugar  beet  industry  (see  Index)  in  this  coun- 
try or  in  Germany,  we  should  discuss  the  agricultural 
methods  employed  on  a  sugar  beet  farm,  the  processes  of 
extracting  the  sugar  in  the  factories  and  of  refining,  the 
shipment  of  the  product  to  its  consumers  even  in  foreign 
lands,  the  location  and  extent  of  beet  sugar  production  in 
Germany,  France,  and  other  European  countries,  also  in 
the  United  States.  In  Cuba  and  the  Hawaiian  Islands, 
and  in  the  Southern  states,  the  cane  sugar  production 
should  be  compared  with  that  of  beet  sugar,  with  respect 
to  its  relative  importance  and  methods.  The  production 
of  maple  sugar  in  the  hardwood  forests  of  New  England 
and  the  Northern  states  should  be  compared  also  with  the 
other  forms  of  sugar  production.  In  this  way  the  whole 
broad  field  of  sugar  production  in  all  parts  of  the  world  in 
its  relations  to  agriculture,  manufacturing,  and  commercial 
routes  can  be  worked  out  into  a  large,  connected  complex 
of  facts. 

As  we  move  forward  in  geographical  studies  these  great 
units  become  more  complex  and  comprehensive.  The  Mis- 
sissippi Valley,  for  example,  embraces  more  than  half  the 


66  NORTH  AMERICA 

territory  of  the  United  States  in  one  of  these  great  units, 
and  it  again  is  capable  of  being  compared  with  other  large 
river  valleys  of  the  world,  and  the  comparison  leads  up  to 
still  broader  generalizations.  The  continent  of  North 
America  is  another  still  larger  unit,  still  more  complex  and 
various  than  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  capable  of  being 
compared  likewise  with  other  continents.  In  fact,  all  the 
great  geographical  topics  tend  to  unify  themselves  in  a 
few  very  large  types,  but  something  seems  still  lacking  to 
that  thoroughness  of  knowledge  which  the  good  school- 
master insists  upon. 

6.  To  secure  this  more  complete  mastery  and  connec- 
tion of  facts  in  geography,  there  is  great  value  in  oral 
drills,  both  for  the  class  as  a  whole,  and  for  individuals. 
Large  wall  maps  are  of  special  use.  With  such  maps, 
and  a  pointer  in  his  hand,  the  teacher  can  give  rapid  oral 
drills  upon  cities,  rivers,  countries,  peninsulas  and  bays, 
mountains  and  political  divisions,  in  fact,  upon  all  the 
leading  points  in  geography.  Many  of  these  facts  range 
themselves  in  great  series  along  traffic  routes,  river  courses, 
or  coast  lines,  or  they  may  be  traced  along  parallel  lines 
of  latitude  or  along  great  mountain  chains.  It  is  an  easy 
matter  to  arouse  strong  enthusiasm  and  a  vigorous  class 
spirit  in  these  oral  drills. 

When  new  and  difficult  geographical  names  are  pro- 
nounced, first  by  the  teacher,  and  then  in  concert  by  the 
class  and  singly  by  pupils,  they  are  very  quickly  fastened 
in  the  memory.  Much  more  can  be  accomplished  in  a 
short  time  by  vigorous  drills  in  the  class  than  by  long 
periods  of  seat  study.  Such  drills  as  these  can  be  thrown 
in  at  odd  moments  almost  daily  in  geographical  work,  and 
they  give  variety  and  interest  to  geographical  study. 


AND   OTHER   CONTINENTS  67 

Without  such  drills  it  is  almost  certain  that  many  of  the 
commonest  names  and  facts  will  not  be  well  mastered.  The 
children  may  not  know  how  to  pronounce  the  new  names, 
and  if  they  learn  them  at  all  at  their  seat  study  they  are 
apt  to  learn  them  wrong.  Children  will  get  much  detailed 
knowledge  from  special  type  studies,  but  they  fail  to  ac- 
quire that  ready  mastery  and  comprehensive  grasp  which 
nothing  but  drill  exercise  is  likely  to  give.  These  drills 
fill  in,  to  a  large  extent,  the  necessary  facts  lying  between 
the  larger  types,  and  give  that  mastery  of  geography  in  its 
usual  setting  which  makes  it  practical. 

7.  In  the  treatment  of  the  topics  worked  out  in  the  text- 
books there  are  several  ways  in  which  the  teacher  may 
strengthen  and  reenforce  the  text-book  lessons.  In  the 
assignment  of  lessons  in  the  book,  it  is  well  for  the  teacher 
to  consider  carefully  how  to  open  up  the  subject  in  such 
a  way  that  the  assignment  of  the  lesson  itself  becomes 
something  of  a  revelation  of  interesting  problems  and 
questions  dealt  with  in  the  book.  Merely  to  assign  a 
number  of  paragraphs  or  pages  in  a  book  is  insipid,  but  if 
the  teacher  calls  attention  to  what  they  have  been  study- 
ing, and  shows  how  it  leads  up  to  the  following  topics, 
recalls  some  familiar  experience  or  knowledge  of  the  chil- 
dren, shows  how  the  lesson  will  be  helped  by  a  proper 
study  of  maps,  or  by  examining  certain  pictures,  or  by 
reading  some  book  of  reference,  a  strong  stimulus  is  given 
to  the  study  of  a  lesson.  With  many  children  the  victory 
is  half  won.  The  purpose  that  underlies  all  this  is  not 
to  give  excessive  help  to  the  children,  thus  reducing  their 
own  self-activity  and  independent  effort,  but  rather  to 
stimulate  to  stronger  effort,  to  thoughtful  study,  to  an 
independent  use  of  books  and  materials.  A  great  deal 


68  NORTH  AMERICA 

depends  upon  the  teacher's  knowing  how  to  assign  a  lesson 
properly. 

It  is  generally  admitted  that  there  are  several  important 
ways  by  which  the  knowledge  contained  in  the  text-books 
should  be  enlarged  upon  in  class  discussion.  This  may  be 
done  by  the  presentation  of  additional  facts  by  the  teacher, 
by  the  use  of  geographical  readers,  guide-books,  and  books 
of  travel  by  the  children,  and  by  collecting  illustrative 
pictures,  maps,  and  magazine  articles  from  various  sources. 
Most  successful  teachers  of  geography  use  all  these 
methods  of  awakening  the  children  to  thoughtfulness  and 
independent  use  of  sources.  It  might  seem  that  the  text- 
books are  so  full  of  material  on  important  topics  that  not 
much  of  this  sort  needs  to  be  added,  and  certain  it  is  that 
the  text-book  lessons  should  be  the  nuclei  around  which  this 
additional  material  is  clustered,  and  to  which  it  is  made 
contributory.  But  there  is  one  inevitable  deficiency  in 
text-book  work  which  the  teacher  alone  can  make  good. 
This  deficiency  lies  in  the  meagreness  of  the  concrete  and 
illustrative  details  of  each  subject.  If  children  wish  to 
know  how  a  canal  lock  works,  how  iron  is  smelted  in  a 
blast  furnace,  how  the  jetties  for  deepening  the  mouth  of 
the  Mississippi  are  constructed,  how  the  water-power  of  a 
river  is  applied  to  a  mill-wheel,  how  an  irrigating  ditch  is 
constructed,  how  gold  is  gotten  out  of  a  mine,  and  scores 
of  other  similar  problems,  they  will  not  find  them  explained 
in  text-books.  Yet  these  may  be  the  very  meatiest  parts 
of  the  lesson.  Nor  can  we  throw  the  blame  for  this  defect 
upon  the  text-books.  It  would  be  impossible  for  text- 
books to  contain  such  material.  It  lies  with  the  teacher 
and  the  children  to  work  these  things  out  in  the  class-room 
on  the  basis  of  the  text-book  work.  This  implies,  of 


AND   OTHER    CONTINENTS  69 

course,  that  the  teacher,  as  well  as  the  children,  must  have 
some  time  for  the  reading  of  geographical  readers  and 
other  reference  books. 

Among  other  things  the  teacher  must  possess  skill  in 
the  clear  and  graphic  presentation  of  these  additional  facts 
and  illustrations.  Simplicity  and  clearness  of  statement 
stand  first.  The  constant  use  of  the  blackboard  for  mak- 
ing diagrams  and  plans  of  cities,  for  drawing  canals, 
machines,  and  tools,  for  showing  the  courses  of  winds  and 
ocean  currents,  for  exhibiting  the  processes  in  the  manu- 
facturing industries,  for  the  illustration  by  blocks  and 
squares  of  the  comparative  statistics  of  products,  etc.,  — 
the  use  of  all  these  devices  for  graphic  representation  of 
facts  should  constitute  a  good  part  of  the  teacher's  skill. 
These  things  are  useful  in  almost  every  topic  treated  in 
geography.  If  the  teacher  has  learned  how  to  use  them 
freely  and  easily,  the  children  also  will  fall  quickly  into  the 
same  modes  of  expressing  ideas,  and  will  develop  the  same 
kind  of  power.  Let  the  teacher  encourage  them  and  re- 
quire it  of  them. 

This  kind  of  skill  and  power  on  the  teacher's  part  may 
be  traced  back  to  definite  causes  as  follows. 

(1)  The  close  observation  of  many  common  things  in  his 
own  neighborhood,  such  as  various  modes  of  cultivating 
plants,  the  treatment  of  stock,  the  devices  and  processes 
and  machinery  employed  in  manufacturing,  in  shops  and 
stores,  the  construction  of  buildings,  plans,  materials, 
and  tools,  in  short  the  various  activities  and  phenomena 
in  the  world  of  human  affairs  and  in  the  realm  of  physical 
nature  about  him.  There  are  very  few  of  these  things 
which,  if  closely  viewed  and  understood,  will  not  be  found 
later  of  great  use  in  clearing  up  geographical  ideas.  No 


70  NORTH  AMERICA 

text-book  can  furnish  this  kind  of  knowledge.  It  must 
be  gotten  at  first-hand  by  each  person,  in  blacksmith  shops, 
gardens,  factories,  founderies,  hothouses,  quarries,  fields, 
storms,  homes,  travels,  and  various  kinds  of  daily 
experience. 

(2)  The  teacher  must  know  how  to  appeal  to  similar 
experiences  gained  by  the  children  by  their  own  observa- 
tions.    It  is  not  probable  that  any  teacher  will  overdo  this 
matter  of  concrete  illustration  of  geographical  topics  by 
appealing  to  the  children's  home  experiences.      The  work 
of  home  geography,  especially  by  the  variety  of  excursions 
in  the  home   neighborhood,    is    designed    to   supply    an 
abundance  of  this  varied  experience.     Both  teacher  and 
pupils  need  to  continue  these  lines  of  direct  observation 
throughout  the  years  of  the  school  course. 

(3)  The   ready   use    of    sketching   and   map-drawing 
by  the  teacher  lends  great  power.     Many  topics  require 
local  maps   drawn  to  a  large   scale,  such  as  the  harbors 
of  cities,  a  special  river  basin  or  flood  plain,  the  delta  of 
the  Mississippi  with  its  jetties,  an  irrigation  stream  and 
canal,  the  plan  of  a  city  or  local  mining  district  or  lumber 
camp.     It  is  very  important  that  the  teacher  be  able  to 
sketch  such  local  maps  quickly  and  neatly.     In  addition 
to  this  children  should  learn  to  sketch  the  maps  of  states 
or  countries,  river   basins,  mountain  systems,   and  conti- 
nents quickly  and  correctly  as  to  general  proportions,  yet 
without   painful   accuracy   in  small  details.       In  two  or 
three  minutes  a  child  should  be  able  to  put  the  map  of  the 
Ohio  Valley  or  even  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  on  the  black- 
board,  likewise  the  map  of    South    America  or  Africa  ; 
but  no  class  of  children  will  ever  accomplish  this  unless 
the  teacher  gives  the  example  of  ready  proficiency. 


AND   OTHER   CONTINENTS  71 

With  as  little  waste  of  time  as  may  be,  children  should 
learn  to  draw  on  the  board  from  memory  all  sorts  of  maps 
correct  in  general  outline  and  proportion.  A  brief  exami- 
nation and  discussion  in  class  of  the  book  map  with  respect 
to  the  general  outline  and  proportions  will  help  greatly  in 
the  first  attempt  to  draw  any  map.  If  the  teacher  will 
sketch  it  quickly  before  the  children,  they  will  readily  grasp 
the  method  of  execution.  It  is  not  necessary  that  much  time 
be  spent  in  getting  results  approximately  correct.  Maps 
should  be  regarded  as  a  mode  of  expressing  the  children's 
ideas  to  which  they  resort  as  freely  as  to  the  words  of  lan- 
guage. There  are  a  great  many  things  in  geographical 
study  which  can  be  expressed  by  drawings  and  sketches 
better  than  by  language.  These  various  ways  of  acquir- 
ing skill  in  the  presentation  of  ideas  should  be  steadily 
cultivated  by  the  teacher.  They  imply  open-minded, 
progressive  intelligence  at  every  step.  It  is  in  these 
things  that  the  inventiveness  and  originality  of  the 
teacher  are  furnished  full  scope. 

8.  Children  should  learn  to  study  and  master  their  les- 
sons for  themselves.  There  are  several  ways  in  which  they 
can  be  thrown  upon  their  own  resources  and  taught  to  mas- 
ter difficulties  by  themselves.  The  lesson  assigned  in  the 
book  should  be  strictly  required  of  them.  The  topics  pre- 
sented by  the  teacher  also,  during  the  recitation,  should  be 
called  for  again  from  the  children ;  and  in  both  of  these  cases 
without  much  questioning.  Children  should  recite  their  les- 
sons in  continuous  discourse,  in  no  way  slavishly  bound  to 
the  language  of  the  book,  but  with  free  and  connected  ex- 
pression. If  the  subject  falls  into  important  topics,  the  mere 
mention  of  a  topic  should  be  enough  to  bring  a  full  state- 
ment from  the  pupil.  Teachers  oftentimes  weaken  and 


72  NORTH  AMERICA 

destroy  the  best  work  of  the  pupils  by  asking  too  many 
questions  and  by  helping  the  children  with  little  sugges- 
tions. The  topics  which  the  children  have  gathered  from 
reference  books  they  should  be  able  to  answer  for,  thus 
acquiring  independence  of  thought  and  language.  A 
teacher  should  never  forget  that  the  final  worth  and  out- 
come of  a  lesson  is  what  the  children  get  out  of  it  and  can 
express  about  it.  If  the  children  are  not  held  to  a  rigid 
account  by  requiring  a  full  and  adequate  statement  of  facts 
in  every  lesson,  they  do  not  gain  power. 

In  a  subject  like  geography  there  is  danger  that  the 
teacher  may  fall  into  a  habit  of  much  talking  and  explain- 
ing. The  subject  is  interesting  and  admits  of  infinite 
enlargement,  and  the  teacher  who  is  well  equipped  is 
probably  tempted  to  pour  out  of  the  abundance  of  his 
knowledge.  But  when  the  teacher  has  done  his  duty  by 
clear  and  simple  presentation  of  a  topic,  he  should  keep 
silence  while  the  pupils  give  proof  of  their  understanding. 
Nothing  can  take  the  place  in  good  oral  lessons  of  the 
teacher's  own  careful  and  complete  statement  of  the  topics. 
But  he  should  not  keep  on  talking  and  questioning  when 
the  pupil's  work  begins.  To  test  the  real  effectiveness  of 
his  instruction  the  teacher  may  give  every  week  or  two  a 
written  review  or  test  upon  a  few  topics.  This  is  the 
most  searching  of  all  tests  of  the  pupil's  mastery  of  the 
subject  and  of  the  teacher's  method.  Defects  in  spelling 
and  language  and  in  thought  which  do  not  appear  in  oral 
recitations  are  made  distinct  and  notable. 

9.  In  all  geographies  great  importance  is  assigned  to 
review  exercises  by  which  the  facts  are  fixed  in  the  mind 
by  repetition.  The  text-books,  indeed,  provide  usually 
for  a  systematic  repetition  of  the  same  topics  two  or 


AND   OTIIEE   CONTINENTS  73 

three  times  during  the  school  course.  The  repetition 
and  enlargement  of  topics  on  this  plane  leads  to  a  better 
mastery  and  a  more  thorough  retention  of  the  facts.  This 
plan  of  review  has  been  worked  out  completely  in  the 
Tarr  and  McMurry  series.  The  briefer  outline  of  topics 
for  North  America  and  the  rest  of  the  world  in  the  First 
Book  is  enlarged  and  worked  out  to  completeness  in  the 
later  text.  A  systematic  comparison  closes  the  series. 

The  frequent  oral  drills  emphasized  above  also  conduce 
to  this  fluent  mastery  of  important  facts,  and  bring  a  varied 
mass  of  materials  under  quick  and  comprehensive  survey. 
A  still  more  valuable  principle  of  review  has  been  fully 
explained  and  illustrated  under  comparisons  in  type 
studies,  where  each  new  topic  is  made  a  basis  of  review 
for  similar  topics  previously  studied.  Such  comparisons, 
for  example  of  the  cities  of  Europe  with  cities  of  the 
United  States  previously  studied,  bring  out  more  clearly 
the  significant  facts  in  both  the  old  and  the  new.  A  com- 
parison of  the  areas  of  the  European  countries  with  that  of 
the  United  States,  or  of  populations,  or  of  mountains  or 
river  valleys,  is  a  much  more  telling  method  of  fixing  and 
emphasizing  the  facts  to  be  learned,  than  the  method  of 
memorizing  or  repeating  the  facts  in  each  case  without  com- 
parison. These  comparisons,  as  already  shown,  on  the  basis 
of  similarity  and  contrast,  bring  about  a  consolidation  and 
grouping  of  geographical  objects  into  a  few  large  classes 
which  are  easily  surveyed.  This  method  of  comparison 
makes  it  necessary  for  the  teacher  to  know  and  keep  in 
mind  all  the  subjects  which  the  children  have  previously 
studied.  But  only  in  this  way  can  the  different  parts  of 
the  child's  knowledge,  gained  from  year  to  year,  be  con- 
solidated and  properly  classified. 


74  NORTH  AMERICA 

An  examination  of  the  series  will  reveal  a  plan  of  sys- 
tematic review  by  comparison.  The  topics  of  home  geog- 
raphy need  to  be  reviewed  and  incorporated  into  similar 
topics  in  the  treatment  of  the  United  States.  Many  of 
the  subjects  discussed  in  the  latter  connection  are  also  pre- 
sented in  the  study  of  the  world  whole,  and  the  recalling 
of  the  previous  studies  as  a  preparation  is  of  advantage. 

In  the  presentation  of  topics  on  Europe  and  other  coun- 
tries, a  reproduction  of  related  subjects  in  North  America 
is  frequently  made  and  the  close  similarity  traced  out. 
This  plan  brings  the  geography  of  all  parts  of  the  world 
into  interesting  connection  with  the  United  States,  and 
with  those  things  most  familiar  to  one's  experience  and 
study  at  home.  In  this  way  all  geography  study  becomes, 
in  the  end,  an  interpretation  of  American  occupations, 
ideas,  and  physical  surroundings,  and  we  end  where  we 
began,  with  home  objects  and  interests.  At  the  same  time, 
all  foreign  and  distant  objects  are  measured  and  estimated 
upon  these  familiar  standards  of  the  home,  and  are  thus 
better  understood. 

If  we  add  to  this  method  of  comparison  the  idea  of 
constantly  illustrating  new  topics  by  means  of  home  expe- 
riences drawn  from  the  neighborhood,  we  shall  bring  all 
parts  of  a  child's  experience  of  this  subject  into  a  closer 
connection  and  unity.  It  is  hardly  possible  to  overdo 
this  phase  of  geographical  study.  The  whole  movement, 
from  the  home  neighborhood  outward,  making  the  con- 
crete local  experiences  the  foundation  upon  which  all  later 
structures  are  built,  is  a  gradual  movement  toward  larger 
and  more  complex  units.  They  are  similar,  however,  to 
those  smaller  or  simpler  units  which  are  studied  in  the 
home.  This  movement  from  the  home  outward  is  in  con- 


AND   OTHER   CONTINENTS  75 

trast  to  the  idea  of  beginning  with  the  world  whole,  and  by 
successive  analyses,  of  coming  down  to  the  smaller  parts. 
We  have  already  suggested  that  a  brief  survey  of  the  world 
whole,  with  the  continents  and  oceans,  should  be  given  in 
the  first  year  of  geographical  study  ;  but  the  chief  move- 
ment is  synthetic  and  advances  outward  from  the  familiar 
and  simple  to  that  which  is  more  complex  and  distant  or 
extensive. 

The  design  of  this  brief  world  survey  is  to  give  to  the 
child  a  ready  bird's-eye  view  of  the  whole  field  of  geogra- 
phy. With  this  in  mind  he  need  never  feel,  in  his  future 
study,  that  he  is  lost,  groping  about  without  chart  or  com- 
pass in  unknown  regions. 

But  the  great  onward  movement  in  geography  study  is 
synthetic  and  constructive,  building  up  step  by  step  a 
solid  structure  of  real  knowledge.  It  advances  steadily 
outward  from  the  familiar  and  simple,  to  that  which  is 
more  complex  and  extensive. 

The  various  methods  of  review,  by  repetition,  by  writ- 
ten tests,  by  oral  drills,  by  comparison,  and  by  constant 
appeal  to  the  child's  own  experience  and  previous  knowl- 
edge, are  the  various  modes  by  which  a  child's  gradually 
expanding  knowledge  shall  be  strengthened,  consolidated, 
organized,  and  made  effective  in  the  interpretation  of  the 
world. 

10.  There  are  certain  dangers  and  faults  which  need  to 
be  guarded  against  in  geographical  studies. 

(1)  The  mere  memorizing  of  places  and  their  locations 
without  a  study  of  causes  and  reasons. 

(2)  The   memorizing   of   the  words  of  a  book  with- 
out much  thoughtfulness  as  to  the  value  of  the  things 
learned. 


76  NORTH  AMERICA 

(3)  The  abstract  rather  than  the  concrete  and  illustra- 
tive treatment  of  topics. 

(4)  The  lack  of  close  connection  and  steady  coherency 
of  the  facts  treated  in  any  topic. 

(5)  The  failure  to  use  maps,  to  make  them  concrete 
and  real  rather  than  purely  formal  and  symbolic. 

On  the  basis  of  the  topics  previously  worked  out  in  the 
geography  of  North  America,  we  will  add  a  few  illustra- 
tions of  the  close  connection  of  American  topics  with  those 
of  Europe  and  of  other  countries.  These  will  show  the 
significance  of  large  units,  of  types,  of  review  by  compari- 
son and  of  causal  relations. 

Coal  and  iron  in  Great  Britain  and  the  industries  based 
upon  the  production  of  these  raw  materials. 

I.  By  a  reference  to  the  treatment  of  Great  Britain 
(for  pages  see  Index)  we  notice  that  the  ability  to  under- 
stand about  coal  and  iron  is  based  upon  the  previous  full 
treatment  of  this  subject  in  the  United  States.  The 
teacher,  therefore,  who  is  teaching  this  should  make  a  care- 
ful study  of  this  earlier  part  of  the  text.  Also  that  on  the 
Coal  Period  in  the  chapter  on  the  Physiography  of  North 
America,  that  found  in  the  summary  which  deals  with  coal 
and  iron  production  in  the  United  States,  and  finally  that 
found  in  the  chapter  on  Physiography  of  Europe. 

The  facts  which  have  been  previously  learned  about  this 
subject  will  all  be  needed  by  the  children  before  they  get 
through  with  the  discussion  of  English  coal  and  iron  indus- 
tries, and  without  them  they  cannot  understand  the  sub- 
ject in  England.  For  example,  in  the  treatment  of  North 
America  a  full  description  is  given  how  coal  was  formed 
in  the  earth,  how  a  mine  is  planned  as  a  means  for  secur- 
ing coal,  how  the  different  kinds  of  coal  are  obtained,  and 


AND   OTHER    CONTINENTS  77 

how  coke  ovens  are  built  to  prepare  coke  for  the  blast  fur- 
naces. Then  follows  the  description  of  a  blast  furnace 
and  how  the  pig  iron  thus  produced  is  used  in  iron  manu- 
facturing. Still  further  in  the  discussion  of  American 
iron,  the  iron  mines  are  described,  the  great  docks  along 
the  lakes  for  shipping  iron  ore,  and  the  central  points  of 
manufacture  by  blast  furnaces,  etc.,  explained.  None  of 
these  topics  are  treated  in  detail  in  the  topic  on  English 
coal  and  iron,  yet  these  special  features  are  what  give  the 
interesting  and  instructive  facts  and  ideas  for  children. 

The  children  have  already  had  the  full  description  of 
these  peculiarities  of  iron  and  coal  production  in  the  United 
States,  and  it  would  be  tedious  to  go  through  with  a  full 
account  of  them  a  second  time  for  England.  They  simply 
need  to  recall  the  chief  facts,  and  to  interpret  the  great 
industries  of  England,  of  a  similar  character,  on  the  basis 
of  this  previously  gained  information.  This  throws  the 
children  back  upon  their  own  resources  and  compels  them 
to  use  their  memory  and  their  reasoning  powers  in  inter- 
preting a  similar  great  industry  under  somewhat  new  or 
changed  conditions.  It  may  prove  necessary  for  the  chil- 
dren studying  England  to  examine  for  themselves  their 
maps  and  text- books  previously  studied  in  the  geography 
of  the  United  States,  and  this  may  be  suggested  in  the 
assignment  of  the  lesson. 

For  children  to  study  the  coal  and  iron  industries  of 
Great  Britain  without  reference  to  similar  studies  in  the 
United  States  shows  a  curious  blindness  in  teachers, 
especially  a  blindness  as  to  how  new  knowledge  is 
interpreted. 

II.  After  the  principal  facts  in  connection  with  coal  and 
iron  in  England  have  been  brought  out  by  study  and 


78  NORTH  AMERICA 

class-work,  it  may  be  well  to  institute  a  definite  compari- 
son of  the  coal  areas  and  coal  production  in  England'  and 
in  the  United  States.  The  coal  maps  for  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States  form  a  fair  basis  for  such  a  comparison. 

The  children  will  be  able  from  a  few  questions  to  see 
how  much  more  extensive  is  the  coal  area  in  the  United 
States  than  that  of  Great  Britain.  Then  compare  in 
regard  to  population  and  position  the  large  cities  of  Great 
Britain  which  are  centres  of  coal  and  iron  business  with 
those  of  the  United  States.  The  great  series  of  lake  ports, 
river  ports,  and  sea  ports  are  thus  brought  into  striking 
relation  to  the  English  centres  of  coal  and  iron  trade. 
Such  comparisons  as  these  open  up  to  children  some  very 
interesting  and  suggestive  lines  of  thought,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  incidentally  give  a  fine  review  of  the  names, 
importance,  and  location  of  cities. 

III.  What  advantage  is  it  to  England  to  have  a  large 
production  of  coal  and  iron  ? 

England  requires  coal  and  iron  for  her  great  manufac- 
turing industries,  as  well  as  for  ordinary  uses  of  coal  for 
fuel.  But  England,  on  account  of  her  extensive  shipping 
with  all  parts  of  the  world,  needs  great  numbers  of  vessels 
(both  war  and  merchant  ships),  which  are  now  mostly 
built  of  iron  and  propelled  by  steam.  It  requires  vast 
quantities  of  coal  to  supply  the  steamships  of  England, 
which  ply  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  England's  large  coal 
fields  are  by  the  seashore  or  close  to  it,  as  at  New  Castle 
and  Swansea,  Liverpool,  etc.  The  wealth  of  England 
depends  chiefly  upon  her  manufacturing  and  commerce, 
and  in  both  of  these  coal  and  iron  are  of  the  greatest  value. 
The  coal  fields  of  the  United  States  lie  mostly  inland, 
yet  within  easy  reach  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia,  and 


AND   OTHER   CONTINENTS  79 

near  to  the  lake  and  river  ports,  Pittsburg,  Cleveland,  Erie, 
Chicago,  St.  Louis,  etc. 

IV.  Why  should  a  small  country   like  Great   Britain 
produce  almost  as  much  coal  and  iron  as  a  large  country 
like  the  United  States  ?    This  question  may  imply  a  degree 
of  historical  knowledge  which  makes  it  impossible  for  the 
children  to  answer  in  any  full  manner.       By  question  or 
by  direct  statement  of  the  teacher  it  may  be  well  to  touch 
on  the  following  points.     Great  Britain  is  a  much  older 
state  than  ours,  and  it  had  extensive  manufacturing  indus- 
tries  long   before  such    industries    were    established   in 
America.     The  population  of  Great  Britain  is  very  large 
as  compared  with  the  size  of  the  country,  and  it  has  as 
many  people  engaged  in  coal  and  iron  industries  as  the 
United  States.     Much  of  the  United  States  is  only  recently 
settled,  and  there  has  not  been  time  yet  to  develop  much 
manufacturing  in  the  new  states.     In  the  last  few  years 
the  iron  and  coal  production  has  grown  rapidly  in  the 
United  States.     It  is  likely  that  these  industries  in  the 
United  States  will  outgrow  those  of  Great  Britain.     Does 
the  United  States  furnish  much  coal  for  steamships  upon 
the  ocean  ? 

V.  In  the  further  study  of  the  coal  and  iron  industries 
in  the  other  countries  of  Europe  and  in  other  parts  of  the 
world,  not  much  will  be  said  except  to  compare  them  with 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  in  this  kind  of  pro- 
duction.    The  German  Empire  stands  next  to  England  in 
these  industries,  and  Austria  third  among  European  states. 

The  less  civilized  parts  of  the  world  have  made  but 
little  use  of  coal  and  have  little  production  of  iron  and 
iron  manufactures. 

VI.  This  method  of  studying  the  coal  and  iron  indus- 


80  NORTH  AMERICA 

tries  of  Great  Britain  is  mainly  a  method  of  review  and 
comparison.  It  brings  out  with  great  clearness  the  lead- 
ing facts,  both  for  Great  Britain  and  for  the  United  States, 
and  shows  that  like  results  are  produced  by  like  causes  in 
very  different  and  widely  separated  countries.  Such  com- 
parisons as  that  instituted  above  not  only  review  all 
the  important  facts  in  both  countries,  but  by  similarity 
and  contrast  throw  them  into  a  peculiar  distinctness. 
Topics  that  have  been  reviewed  in  this  way  will  hardly 
need  any  other  form  of  set  review.  Indeed,  if  children 
and  teachers  were  accustomed  to  draw  their  previous 
knowledge  constantly  into  review  by  comparison  with  new 
topics,  taken  up  in  progressive  studies,  it  seems  that  formal 
or  set  reviews  for  mere  repetition  would  be  wholly  unnec- 
essary. The  whole  tendency  of  such  reviews  by  compari- 
son is  to  consolidate  all  a  child's  ideas  on  a  subject  like 
coal  and  iron  into  one  connected  body  of  knowledge. 

The  Mississippi  compared  with  other  rivers. 

An  excursion  to  the  top  of  the  bluffs  that  border  the 
Mississippi  River  at  Winona,  Minnesota,  may  be  used  to 
illustrate  the  relation  of  the  local  topography  and  com- 
merce to  similar  topics  in  the  later  study  of  the  United 
States  and  of  foreign  countries. 

1.  The  author  has  made  this  trip  with  a  class  to  the 
summit  of  the  bluffs,  six  hundred  feet  above  the  river. 
The  valley  between  the  bluffs  of  Wisconsin  and  Minne- 
sota at  this  point  is  about  four  miles  wide,  and  the  bluffs 
on  both  sides  are  forest-covered,  except  where  a  steep 
rocky  cliff  or  limestone  stratum  stands  out  in  plain  view. 
The  bottom  lands  are  partly  swampy  and  forest-covered, 
partly  occupied  by  open  fields  and  farms. 

From  the  edge  of  the  western  bluff,  at  Winona,  one  can 


AND  OTHER   CONTINENTS  81 

look  up  and  down  the  river  many  miles,  and  see  the  reced- 
ing line  of  cliffs,  fading  into  blue,  fifteen  or  twenty  miles 
toward  the  north,  and  rising  in  mountainlike  peaks  toward 
the  south.  The  great  trough  at  one's  feet  is  from  four 
to  seven  miles  wide,  and  six  hundred  feet  below  the 
level  of  the  prairie  and  woodlands  on  either  side  of  the 
river.  The  narrow  course  of  the  stream,  like  a  silver 
ribbon,  can  be  traced  as  it  winds  back  and  forth  across 
the  lowlands. 

An  occasional  steamboat  can  be  seen  passing  up  or 
down  the  river,  stopping  at  the  levee  at  Winona  to  unload 
and  take  on  goods.  It  passes  under  the  high  bridge  that 
crosses  to  the  Wisconsin  side  from  Winona.  More  often 
still  the  railroad  trains  are  seen  at  the  foot  of  the  bluffs, 
speeding  their  way  up  and  down  the  valley  on  both  sides 
of  the  river.  It  is  quite  evident,  from  the  number  of  trains, 
that  the  railroads  carry  by  far  the  greater  quantity  of 
goods  as  compared  with  the  steamboats. 

The  chimneys  and  stacks  of  the  big  sawmills  and  plan- 
ing-mills,  with  their  immense  piles  of  lumber,  are  seen 
close  by  the  river,  and  a  rafting  steamer  may  be  observed 
at  times,  guiding  a  large  log  raft  down  the  stream.  The 
logs  come  from  the  pineries  of  Wisconsin. 

The  city  of  Winona  is  built  on  a  long  bed  of  sand,  only 
about  ten  feet  or  less  above  the  river  at  high  water.  The 
city  extends  five  or  six  miles  up  and  down  the  bank  of 
the  river,  but  only  half  or  three  fourths  of  a  mile  in 
width.  Wagon  roads  lead  up  and  down  the  valley,  and 
also  climb  through  the  little  valleys  to  the  prairie  regions 
beyond  the  bluffs,  bringing  the  produce  of  the  farms. 
One  railroad  passes  westward  from  Winona,  through  a 
winding  valley,  and  after  fifteen  or  twenty  miles  of  steep 


82  NORTH  AMERICA 

grades,  reaches  the  prairie  lands  six  hundred  feet  above 
Winona. 

On  both  sides  of  the  river  we  can  see,  in  the  rocky  slopes 
of  the  bluffs,  a  strip  of  limestone  in  which  the  quarries 
for  securing  building  stone  are  found.  One  bluff,  the 
Sugar  Loaf,  is  almost  effaced  by  quarries. 

For  several  miles  back  from  the  face  of  the  bluffs,  the 
country  is  hilly  and  broken,  being  deeply  cut  up  by  the 
lateral  valleys  and  gulches  reaching  back  from  the  river, 
and  leading  to  the  uplands.  But  in  many  places  the  level 
country  at  the  top  of  the  bluffs  is  covered  with  grain- 
fields  which  are  continued  away  westward  for  hundreds 
of  miles. 

The  children  may  observe  all  the  things  we  have  men- 
tioned, and  many  more,  in  the  course  of  one  or  two  excur- 
sions to  these  prominent  points  of  view.  The  stratified 
rock  appearing  at  like  elevation  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
river  suggest  that  the  stream  in  the  course  of  ages  has 
worn  out  this  huge  trough,  and  cariied  the  waste  seaward. 

2.  It  will  not  be  specially  difficult,  on  the  basis  of  such 
observations  as  those  indicated  above,  to  lead  the  children 
of  Winona  on  an  imaginary  trip  up  the  Mississippi  to  St. 
Paul  and  Minneapolis,  and  down  to  St.  Louis  and  Cairo, 
and  to  give  them  a  tolerably  correct  idea  of  the  valley  for 
a  thousand  miles  of  its  upper  navigable  course.  The  river 
throughout  this  whole  distance  is  lined  with  bluffs  from 
two  to  six  hundred  feet  high,  and  furnishes  in  summer 
time  a  steamboat  trip  with  a  great  variety  of  imposing, 
beautiful  views.  The  large  rivers  entering  through  broad 
deep  valleys  from  either  side  swell  the  current  of  the  great 
stream  till  it  is  a  mile  in  width.  The  prosperous  cities 
along  its  course  are  sometimes  in  the  valley  close  down  by 


AND   OTHER    CONTINENTS  83 

the  river,  in  other  cases  rising  upon  the  sloping  hills  and 
bluffs  in  commanding  position. 

The  commerce  of  the  river  by  steamboat,  the  rafting 
and  lumber  business,  the  trunk  railroad  lines  up  and  down 
the  valley  for  nearly  the  whole  distance,  can  be  interpreted 
and  understood  by  the  children  from  their  observations  at 
Winona. 

3.  We  will  suppose  now,  on  the  basis  of  these  studies 
and  observations,  that  children  have  gained  a  fairly  good 
understanding  of  this  extended  valley  for  a  thousand  miles. 

With  a  brief  description  of  the  Ohio  River  from  Pitts- 
burg  to  Cairo  as  a  preparation,  a  short  comparison  of  the 
Upper  Mississippi  with  the  Ohio  will  bring  out  striking 
similarities.  The  Ohio  is  also  navigable  for  nearly  a 
thousand  miles  to  Pittsburg.  As  far  as  Louisville  it  is 
lined  with  high  bluffs  that  are  almost  mountainous  in  its 
upper  course.  Steamboats  pass  up  and  down  this  whole 
distance,  and  railroads  follow  the  valley  on  both  sides  much 
of  the  way.  It  has  even  larger  and  a  greater  number  of 
important  cities  than  the  Upper  Mississippi.  Tributary 
rivers  come  down  to  meet  the  Ohio  through  deep  valleys. 
All  those  points  can  be  readily  grasped  and  understood  on 
the  basis  of  the  earlier  knowledge  of  the  Mississippi.  The 
contrasts  are  also  worth  noticing.  The  Ohio  rises  in  the 
mountains,  the  Mississippi  springs  from  a  lake-studded  low 
plateau.  The  falls,  water-power,  flour-mills  and  sawmills 
at  Minneapolis  are  quite  different  from  the  iron-mills  and 
glass  factories  at  Pittsburg. 

In  a  similar  way  the  course  of  the  Missouri  may  be 
studied  and  compared  with  the  Upper  Mississippi.  The 
sources  of  the  Missouri  in  the  wonderland  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  with  deep  gorges,  mountain  lakes,  and  snowy 


84  NORTH  AMERICA 

peaks,  is  in  strong  contrast  to  the  lake  and  forest  region 
of  northern  Minnesota.  Later  still,  the  broad  alluvial 
flood  plain  of  the  Lower  Mississippi  can  be  contrasted  with 
the  narrower,  bluff-lined  valley  of  the  Upper  Mississippi, 
and  the  striking  difference  in  climate,  vegetation,  people, 
and  cities  brought  out. 

In  these  three  comparisons  we  see  that  this  first  pan- 
oramic view  of  the  Upper  Mississippi  becomes  a  standard  of 
measurement  by  which  we  interpret  and  judge  other  parts 
of  this  broad  basin  of  the  whole  Mississippi  River. 

Later  still,  when  the  St.  Lawrence  is  studied  in  its  course 
through  the  Great  Lakes,  and  over  Niagara  Falls,  and  on  to 
the  sea,  the  contrasts  with  the  Mississippi  are  remarkable. 
The  upper  course  of  the  latter  has  no  lakes  of  consequence 
compared  with  those  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  which,  in  its 
upper  course,  is  lost  in  fresh-water  seas.  The  cataract  of 
Niagara  is  like  nothing  on  the  Mississippi  except  the  falls 
at  the  head  of  navigation  at  Minneapolis.  The  Mississippi 
in  its  lower  course  is  full  of  silt  with  which  to  build  and 
extend  the  great  marshy  delta.  The  clear  water  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  is  without  silt,  produces  no  delta,  but  has 
instead  a  deep,  broad  estuary  at  its  mouth,  into  which 
the  tides  of  the  ocean  pour.  The  Mississippi  is  loaded 
with  mud  and  its  mouth  is  obstructed  with  delta  and 
broad  sand-bars.  An  explanation  of  the  reasons  for  this 
difference  will  bring  out  with  marked  distinctness  the 
character  of  the  two  streams. 

Children  who  have  lived  along  the  Upper  Mississippi  may 
grasp  with  some  vividness  the  striking  difference  between 
the  Upper  Mississippi  and  the  canon  river  of  the  Colorado. 
Its  walls  rise  almost  ten  times  as  high  as  the  bluffs  at 
Winona,  and  the  valley  is  much  narrower.  Show  this 


AND   OTHER   CONTINENTS  85 

contrast  by  two  relief  sketches  drawn  to  the  same  scale 
on  the  blackboard.  In  other  points,  too,  the  two  rivers 
are  notable  for  their  contrasts  in  point  of  navigation, 
climate,  cities  and  people,  scenery  and  sources. 

Again,  a  comparison  of  the  Upper  Mississippi  with  the 
Hudson  will  help  greatly  to  interpret  the  strong  features 
of  that  most  interesting  river. 

With  the  clearly  defined  ideas  of  river  valleys  gained  by 
this  comparison  of  the  Mississippi  with  other  American 
rivers,  the  children  are  prepared  to  examine  the  rivers 
of  Europe  and  other  continents  with  sharp  appreciation 
of  their  meaning  and  character. 

The  Rhine  and  the  Danube  and  the  Volga  will  be  dis- 
covered repeating  the  qualities  already  seen  in  American 
rivers.  The  delta,  the  commerce,  and  the  scenery  of  the 
Rhine  will  remind  them  of  the  Upper  Mississippi  and  the 
Hudson.  The  Danube  is  about  the  length  of  the  Upper 
Mississippi  from  its  source  to  Cairo.  Its  commerce  and 
cities  may  be  compared  in  size  and  importance  with  those 
of  the  Upper  Mississippi. 

In  the  still  later  study  of  the  Yangtse  River  in  China 
and  of  the  Kongo  in  Africa,  children  find  that  both  these 
rivers  are  of  about  the  same  length  as  the  main  stream  of 
the  Mississippi  from  Itasca  Lake  to  the  sea.  For  purposes 
of  navigation  the  Yangtse  is  one  of  the  chief  rivers  of  the 
world,  and  a  comparison  of  the  modes  of  river  boating  in 
China  with  steamboating  on  the  Mississippi  is  one  of  the 
best  ways  of  showing  the  contrast  of  Chinese  and  American 
life  and  modes  of  travel. 

The  Kongo,  like  the  Mississippi,  drains  a  rich,  thickly 
populated  valley,  but  its  navigation  not  much  above 
100  miles  from  its  mouth  is  obstructed  for  250  miles 


86  NORTH  AMERICA 

by  rapids  and  falls,  made  by  the  descent  of  the  river  down 
the  mountain  side  of  Western  Africa.  Until  twenty-five 
years  ago  these  difficulties  to  navigation  completely  shut 
out  all  travellers  from  Central  Africa.  Stanley  explored 
this  part  of  the  river,  and  opened  up  a  traffic  route  to  the 
interior,  which  led  to  the  establishment  of  the  Kongo 
Free  State. 

A  comparison  of  the  unobstructed  navigation  of  the 
Mississippi  with  that  of  the  Kongo,  and  of  the  effects  in 
each  case,  is  very  instructive. 

We  will  only  suggest  a  comparison  of  the  Nile  and  the 
Amazon  with  the  Mississippi,  showing  how  the  greatest 
valleys  of  the  world  agree  and  differ  in  climatic  condition, 
productiveness,  population,  commerce,  and  development  of 
resources. 

This  brief  study  of  rivers,  showing  the  movements  from 
the  home  outward,  illustrates,  in  a  simple,  practical  way, 
several  of  the  most  important  ideas  in  geographical  study, 
as  follows :  — 

(1)  A  vivid  concrete  basis  in  the  child's  direct  expe- 
rience. 

(2)  A  gradual  extension  of  these  home  observations  so 
as  to  grasp  clearly  a  large  unit  like  the  Upper  Mississippi, 
and  eventually  the  whole  Mississippi  Valley. 

(3)  The  standardizing  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  its 
parts  so  as  to  make  them  units  of  measurement  for  denning 
the  size  and  character  of  other  American  rivers  and  later 
of  rivers  in  other  lands. 

(4)  The  emphasis  by  similarity  and   contrast   of  the 
striking  features  of  important  rivers. 

(5)  The  constant  review  and  use  of  all  a  child's  previous 
knowledge  of  rivers  in  these  comparisons. 


AND   OTHER   CONTINENTS  87 

(6)  The  classification  of  all  rivers  as  to  their  physical 
and  commercial  importance  into  a  few  large  groups  or 
types. 

An  examination  of  the  subject-matter  of  Tarr  and  Mc- 
Murry  geographies  will  show  that  they  contain  the  sub- 
stance of  knowledge  necessary  to  these  comparative  studies. 
But  the  success  with  which  this  is  carried  out  depends 
upon  the  teacher.  It  is  necessary  that  he  should  con- 
stantly look  backward  over  the  field  of  previous  studies 
with  this  class  of  children,  and  select  those  rivers  (or 
cities  or  mountains,  etc.)  which  are  of  special  value  as 
interpreters  or  as  familiar  standards  of  measurement. 
The  instructor  in  such  cases  must  be  more  than  a  mere 
grade  teacher,  and  must  compass  in  his  thought  the  whole 
course  of  geographical  studies. 

In  a  similar  way  other  important  topics  can  be  traced 
through  the  whole  series  from  home  geography  to  North 
America,  Europe,  and  the  rest  of  the  world.  For  example, 
a  county  seat  in  Indiana  may  be  taken  as  the  starting-point 
in  local  geography  illustrating  a  centre  for  government 
and  trade.  Such  a  series  as  this  might  follow  :  Indian- 
apolis, Chicago,  Washington,  New  York,  New  Orleans,  San 
Francisco,  London,  Rome,  Constantinople,  Berlin,  Cal- 
cutta, etc. 

Again,  the  fisheries  upon  some  local  river  may  be  ex- 
tended in  a  series  including  the  lake  fisheries,  the  cod 
fisheries,  the  salmon  fisheries  of  the  Columbia,  the  oyster 
fisheries  of  the  Chesapeake,  the  seal  fisheries  of  Alaska,  etc. 

The  Philippines. 

In  the  study  of  the  Philippines  we  have  a  chance  to  test 
the  value  of  comparing  far  away  and  unfamiliar  things 
with  those  well  known  at  home. 


88  NORTH  AMERICA 

For  Illinois  children,  we  may  ask,  How  large  is  the 
whole  of  the  Philippines  as  compared  with  the  state  of 
Illinois?  By  an  examination  of  a  map  of  the  world,  we 
can  form  some  sort  of  estimate,  but  for  an  accurate  compari- 
son we  must  examine  the  tables  of  areas.  The  area  of  the 
Philippine  Islands  is  given  as  114,326  square  miles,  that  of 
Illinois  about  56,650,  or  about  one-half  the  size  of  the 
Philippines.  By  frequent  discussion  and  map  studies  the 
children  in  Illinois  are  more  familiar  with  Illinois  than 
with  any  other  large  area  that  could  be  used  as  a  standard. 
In  comparing  the  population  we  find  the  Philippines  with 
7,000,000  as  against  3,826,000  in  Illinois.  We  conclude 
that  the  islands  are  about  as  thickly  populated  as  Illinois. 

Again,  How  far  are  the  Philippines  from  the  equator  ? 
How  far  is  Illinois  ?  By  an  examination  of  a  world  map, 
we  find  that  the  middle  point  of  the  islands,  from  north  to 
south,  is  about  ten  degrees  north  of  the  equator,  while  the 
centre  of  Illinois  is  about  forty  degrees  north  of  the  equa- 
tor. In  other  words  the  Philippines  are  thirty  degrees 
nearer  the  equator  than  central  Illinois.  How  many  miles 
is  this  ?  The  schoolboys  will  quickly  figure  this  up  as 
2080  miles,  as  based  on  69J  miles  to  the  degree. 

What  difference  in  climate  is  this  difference  in  latitude 
likely  to  bring  ?  What  difference  in  production  ? 

If  we  should  go  directly  south  from  central  Illinois 
2080  miles,  what  point  would  we  reach  lying  in  the  same 
latitude  as  the  centre  of  the  Philippines  ?  We  should 
locate  the  spot  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  just  southwest  of 
Nicaragua. 

Again,  How  do  the  Philippines  compare  in  size  with  the 
British  Isles  ?  By  an  examination  of  the  tables  we  find 
that  the  area  of  the  British  Isles  is  120,000  square  miles, 


AND  OTHER   CONTINENTS  89 

or  a  little  more  than  the  whole  of  the  Philippines,  but  the 
population  of  the  British  Isles  is  more  than  38,000,000,  or 
more  than  five  times  as  great  as  that  of  the  Philippines. 
How  does  the  latitude  of  the  British  Isles  compare  with 
that  of  the  Philippines?  The  parallel  of  54  north  lati- 
tude is  found  to  pass  near  the  centre  of  the  British  Isles, 
showing  them  to  be  44  degrees,  or  3050  miles,  farther 
from  the  equator  than  the  Philippines. 

In  this  case  it  is  not  our  intention  to  illustrate  the  full 
treatment  of  the  Philippines,  but  simply  to  suggest  a  few 
fruitful  comparisons.  In  the  case  just  cited  such  compari- 
sons require  careful  examination  of  maps  and  statistical 
tables.  Children  are  fully  capable  of  doing  this  and  of 
drawing  conclusions  of  importance.  They  also  like  this 
kind  of  investigation,  which  throws  old  and  familiar  facts 
into  a  new  light,  and  explains  new  things  by  an  appeal  to 
well-known  standards.  The  maps  and  statistical  tables 
should  be  freely  used  by  the  teacher  in  setting  problems 
for  pupils  relating  to  the  relative  area,  location,  and  popu- 
lation of  countries,  the  length  of  rivers,  the  size  of  cities, 
and  the  quantity  of  various  products. 

The  method  of  comparison  in  these  various  forms  is  one 
which  depends  almost  wholly  upon  the  thoughtfulness  and 
ingenuity  of  the  teacher. 

There  is  a  large  quantity  and  variety  of  this  map  and 
statistical  material  in  the  books.  By  a  proper  use  of  it 
children  can  be  taught  how  to  work  up  reference  material. 
Being  so  largely  statistical  and  exact,  it  admits  of  definite 
comparisons  and  conclusions.  Yet  in  the  usual  course  of 
geography  these  materials  play  little  or  no  part  in  the 
instruction. 

In  order  to  get  the  children  to  employ  these  tables  and 


90  NORTH  AMERICA 

maps  with  understanding,  the  teacher  should  occasionally 
spend  a  recitation  period  with  them,  working  out  the 
answers  to  certain  questions  and  problems  which  require 
an  examination  of  their  contents.  Children  are  not  apt  to 
learn -this  without  guidance  and  instruction.  The  above 
lesson  was  worked  over  in  this  way  with  a  seventh  grade 
class,  and  proved  a  valuable  stimulus  to  interesting  study. 
For  older  grades  this  kind  of  study  furnishes  excellent 
seat  work  after  they  have  acquired  some  experience  in  the 
method  of  using  the  tables.  It  is  also  an  excellent  appli- 
cation of  arithmetic. 

This  is  only  a  continuation  of  the  method  of  compara- 
tive study  worked  out  with  such  fulness  of  illustration  in 
the  last  chapter  of  the  Tarr  and  McMurry  series.  In 
the  last  two  years  of  geographical  work  such  comparative 
studies  are  especially  appropriate,  because  the  topics  pre- 
viously treated  in  North  America  furnish  abundant  stand- 
ards of  comparison.  The  older  topics  are  thus  thoroughly 
reviewed,  and  the  new  topics  are  thrown  into  a  much 
clearer  light  by  these  comparisons. 

It  should  be  observed  by  teachers  that  this  mode  of 
comparing  widely  separated  topics  (covering  material 
found  in  different  books  of  the  series)  cannot  be  worked 
out  to  any  considerable  extent  in  the  text-books  them- 
selves. There  are  numerous  examples  and  suggestions  of 
this  method  scattered  through  the  books,  but  the  books 
are  mainly  filled  with  subject-matter  rather  than  with 
illustrations  of  detailed  method.  It  remains,  therefore, 
with  the  teacher  to  make  such  a  method  of  treatment  really 
effective.  The  children,  however,  need  an  introduction  to 
this  kind  of  study.  The  assignment  of  lessons  preparatory 
to  such  studies  and  comparisons  will  take  considerable 


STATE  GEOGRAPHIES  91 

time.  This  kind  of  seat  study  furnishes  the  children 
with  problems  requiring  some  judgment  and  independent 
effort.  It  is  far  more  valuable,  in  grammar  grades,  than 
the  mere  memorizing  of  the  text. 

THE  STATE  GEOGRAPHIES 

The  supplementary  volumes  called  the  State  Geogra- 
phies, and  those  dealing  with  small  groups  of  states  like 
New  England,  will  be  found  of  great  value  in  working  out 
the  general  scheme  of  geographical  study.  As  yet  no  set 
of  geographies  has  made  a  proper  use  of  these  state  geog- 
raphies. They  have  been  chiefly  a  means  of  appealing  to 
state  pride,  or  a  sort  of  commercial  device  for  pleasing 
everybody. 

In  the  hands  of  a  good  teacher  the  state  geographies  and 
those  of  small  groups  of  states  in  the  Tarr  and  McMurry 
series  may  prove  one  of  the  most  important  means  of  put- 
ting interest  and  life  into  the  whole  study.  There  are 
several  reasons  for  this,  as  follows :  — 

1.  These  state  geographies  assume  that  children  will  be 
more  interested  in  the  important  topics  of  their  own  state 
and  of  the  states  close  at  hand  than  in  those  far  distant. 
This  is  in  full  accord  with  the  idea  of  proceeding  from  the 
home  outward,  moving  gradually  into  the  neighboring  dis- 
tricts and  states. 

Most  geographers  who  have  made  books  have  been 
opposed  to  or  indifferent  to  this  view,  saying  that  when 
we  leave  the  home  neighborhood,  it  makes  little  difference 
how  far  we  leap,  as  we  are  dealing,  in  any  case,  with  things 
beyond  the  observation  of  children. 

But  the  assumption  now  is  that  a  New  England  child 
will  be  more  interested  in  New  England  topics,  not  so 


92  STATE  GEOGRAPHIES 

much  because  they  are  more  interesting  in  themselves 
than  other  topics,  but  because  he  has  heard  much  more 
about  them,  and  they  have  come  closer  to  his  experience 
in  many  ways.  A  New  England  boy  or  girl  will  be  more 
interested  in  the  climate  and  topography  of  New  England 
than  in  that  of  North  America  as  a  whole  or  of  Europe.  He 
will  be  more  interested,  for  example,  to  know  the  causes  of 
the  rapid  change  of  New  England  weather,  of  which  he  has 
experienced  much,  than  of  such  changes  in  Colorado  or 
British  Columbia.  The  effects  of  glacial  action  in  pro- 
ducing the  hills,  lakes,  valleys,  drumlins,  soils,  and  har- 
bors of  New  England  will  interest  him  greatly  because 
these  things  he  sees  and  knows  to  some  extent.  Likewise 
the  fisheries,  lumbering,  dairying,  manufacturing,  granite 
quarries,  cities,  and  islands  of  that  region  will  appeal  to 
him.  From  childhood  he  has  heard  of  these  things,  and 
of  Boston  and  the  White  Mountains,  of  the  Connecticut 
Valley,  of  the  Berkshire  Hills,  and  the  Hoosac  Tunnel. 
Knowing  something  about  these  things,  he  is  glad  to  get 
more  definite  information.  How  the  lumber  is  got  from 
the  woods  in  Maine,  how  milk  is  brought  by  train  loads 
to  Boston,  where  the  leather  and  cotton  come  from  for 
the  factories,  he  will  be  pleased  to  know. 

2.  The  state  geographies  give  an  opportunity  for  an 
elaborate,  picturesque,  descriptive  treatment  of  topics 
which,  for  lack  of  space,  is  not  possible,  to  an  equal 
extent,  in  the  general  geography.  An  examination  of 
the  supplementary  volume  on  New  England,  for  example, 
will  show  that  in  the  pictures,  maps,  and  detailed  descrip- 
tions there  is  a  richer,  more  interesting  and  instructive, 
treatment  of  the  important  New  England  topics  than  can 
be  secured  in  any  other  way. 


STATE  GEOGRAPHIES  93 

This  is  the  kind  of  treatment  of  topics  which  appeals 
to  children  more  than  anything  else.  It  is  that  thing  in 
which  most  geographies  completely  fail.  This  deficiency 
is  made  up  by  a  few  teachers  in  skilful  oral  instruction, 
but  in  most  cases,  where  the  instruction  is  limited  to  the 
text-book,  it  is  dull  and  lifeless. 

To  put  this  concrete,  interesting,  descriptive  material 
early  into  the  school  course,  soon  after  "finishing  the  home 
geography,  will  give  a  certain  richness  and  vitality  to  all 
later  study  of  geography. 

3.  We  have  noticed   that  in  the  Tarr  and   McMurry 
geographies  the  treatment  of  a  few  large  topics  as  units 
of  instruction  is  one  of  the  great  steps  in  advance.     The 
striking  advantage  in  this  lies,  first,  in  the  incorporation  of 
a  quantity  of  concrete  description  into  these  topics,  and 
second,  the  employment  of  this  whole  unit  as  a  type  of 
kindred  things. 

Now  the  topics  treated  in  the  state  geographies  are  of 
this  double  character.  They  are  rich  in  descriptive  detail, 
and  they  are  excellent  types  of  similar  topics  the  world  over. 
They  are  based  also  upon  the  idea  of  cause  and  effect,  and 
stand  thus  fundamentally  related  to  the  plan,  which  is 
worked  out  in  the  whole  series.  Lumbering,  the  fisheries, 
cotton  manufacture,  leather  and  shoemaking,  the  Con- 
necticut Valley,  and  Boston  as  a  trade  centre  are  such 
large  topics  useful  for  comparison  in  future  study.  This 
kind  of  study  of  large  topics  will  put  an  end  to  the  frag- 
mentary and  incoherent  memorizing  of  facts  in  indiscrimi- 
nate order. 

4.  It  will  be  possible,  by  means  of  a  well -planned  series, 
either  of   state  geographies  or  of   a   treatment   in   small 
groups  of  states,  to  provide  an  extremely  valuable  series 


94  STATE  GEOGRAPHIES 

of  geographical  readers  or  reference  books  for  North 
America.  Geographical  readers  on  the  United  States 
have  been  thus  far  very  rare  and  meagre,  while  those  on 
foreign  countries  have  been  fuller  and  more  numerous. 
Teachers  and  older  children  in  the  upper  intermediate 
and  grammar  grades  can  make  the  best  use  of  these 
supplementary  books  as  reference  material  with  which 
to  enrich  the  topics  of  North  America. 

It  is  assumed  in  such  case  that  the  supplement  on  Ne\v 
England  would  be  almost  as  valuable  for  the  teacher  in 
Michigan  or  California  or  Louisiana  as  for  the  teacher 
in  Massachusetts.  It  is  at  least  evident  that  the  way  is 
open  in  this  plan  to  secure  a  really  rich  and  instructive 
treatment  of  the  geography  of  the  United  States  and  of 
North  America,  and  this  cannot  be  said  of  any  previous 
series  of  books. 


REFERENCES  TO  BOOKS,  ARTICLES,  ETC.1 


KEY  TO  ABBREVIATIONS 

Publishing  Houses.  —  American  Book  Co.,  New  York  (A.  B.  C.)  ; 
D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York  (Appleton)  ;  The  Century  Co.,  New 
York  (Century) ;  Educational  Publishing  Co.,  Boston  (E.  P.  C.)  ; 
The  Ginn  Co.,  Boston  (Giun)  ;  Harper  and  Bros.,  New  York  (Har- 
per) ;  Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  New  York  (L.  G.) ;  The  Macmillan 
Co.,  New  York  (McM.) ;  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  New  York  (Putnam) ; 
Rand,  McNally  &  Co.,  Chicago  (R.  McN.) ;  Chas.  Scribner's  Sons, 
New  York  (Scribner) ;  Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.,  New  York  (S.  B.  C.). 

Magazines,  etc.  —  Bulletin  American  Geographical  Society  ($1.00 
a  number,  $4.00  a  year)  New  York  (Bull.  A.  G.  S.)  ;  Publications  of 
the  Bureau  of  American  Republics,  Washington,  D.C.  (B.  Amer.  R.)  ; 
Canadian  Magazine  ($0.25),  Toronto,  Canada  (C.  M.);  Cassier's 
Magazine  ($0.25),  New  York  (Cass.);  Century  Magazine  ($0.35), 
New  York  (Cent.  Mag.)-,  Cosmopolitan  ($0.10),  Irvington,  N.Y. 
(Cos.);  Chautauquan  ($0.25),  Meadville,  Pa.  (Chaut.) ;  Harper's 
Magazine  ($0.25),  New  York  (H.  If.)  ;  McClure's  ($0.10),  New  York 
(McClure) ;  National  Geographic  Magazine  ($0.25  a  number,  $2.00  a 
year,  including  membership  to  society),  Washington,  D.C.  (N.  G. 
M.) ;  New  England  Magazine  ($0.35),  Boston  (N.  E.  M.)  ;  Popular 
Science  Monthly  ($0.25),  New  York  (P.  S.  M.)  ;  Scribner's  Magazine 
($0.35),  New  York  (S.  M.). 

In  referring  to  magazines  the  volume  is  given  first,  the  page  last, 
thus,  Vol.  5.  p.  69  =  5 :  69. 

General.  North  America.  —  For  references  to  magazines  and 
journals,  see  First  Book,  pp.  256-257.  Mill,  "  Hints  to  Teachers 

1  These  references  are  not  intended  to  be  exhaustive :  a  few  good  books  are 
selected,  and  others  omitted  because  of  their  cost  or  for  other  reasons.  In 
the  case  of  the  magazine  articles,  too,  only  a  few  of  the  many  good  ones  are 
mentioned. 

95 


96  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

Concerning  the  Choice  of  Geographical  Books  "  (L.  G.,  $1.25)  ;  "  The 
Statesman's  Year  Book  "  (McM.,  $3.00)  ;  Mill,  "  The  International 
Geography  "  (Appleton,  $3.50) ;  Herbertson,  "  Man  and  His  Work  " 
(McM.,  $0.50);  Lyde,  "Man  and  His  Markets"  (McM.,  $0.50); 
Geikie,  "The  Teaching  of  Geography"  (McM.,  $0.60)  ;  Pratt,  "Amer- 
ican History  Stories  "  (E.  P.  C.,  4  vols.,  $0.36  each)  ;  Brooks,  "  Cen- 
tury Book  for  Young  Americans"  (Century,  $1.50)  ;  Rocheleau,  "  Great 
American  Industries  "  (C.  A.  Flanagan,  Chicago,  2  vols.,  $0.50  each)  ; 
Chase  and  Clow,  "  Stories  of  Industry  "  (E.  P.  C.,  2  vols.,  $0.40  each) ; 
Coe,  "  Our  American  Neighbors  "  (S.  B.  C.,  $0.60)  ;  Ballou,  "  Foot- 
prints of  Travel  "  (Ginn,  $1.00)  ;  Smith,  "  Our  Own  Country  "  (S.  B. 
C.,  $0.50) ;  Carpenter,  "  Geographical  Reader,  North  America " 
(A.  B.  C.,  $0.60)  ;  Carrol,  "  Around  the  World  Geography  Series," 
Book  II.  (The  Morse  Co.,  New  York,  $0.38)  ;  King,  "  Picturesque 
Geographical  Readers  "  (Lee  &  Shepard,  Boston,  Vol.  2,  $0.72,  Vols. 
3,  4,  and  5  each  $0.56) ;  Ingersoll,  "  The  Book  of  the  Ocean  "  (Century, 
$1.50)  ;  Lyde,  «  A  Geography  of  North  America  "  (McM.,  $0.50)  ; 
Reclus,  "The  Earth  and  Its  Inhabitants,"  Vols.  XV,  XVI,  and 
XVII,  very  valuable,  but  expensive  (Appleton,  $5.00  each)  ;  "  Stan- 
ford's Compendium  of  Geography  and  Travel,"  North  America,  Vol.  1, 
"  Canada  "  by  Dawson  ;  Vol.  2,  "  United  States  "  by  Gannett  (Scrib- 
ner,  $4.50  each). 

Physiography.  —  Shaler,  "  Outlines  of  the  Earth's  History " 
(App.,  $1.75)  ;  Shaler,  "  The  Story  of  Our  Continent  "  (Ginn,  $0.75)  ; 
Shaler,  "  Aspects  of  the  Earth  "  (Scrib.,  $2.50)  ;  Davis,  "  Physical 
Geography"  (Ginn,  $1.25)  ;  Tarr,  "  Elementary  Physical  Geography" 
(McM.,  $1.40,  contains  references  to  works  on  physiography)  ;  Tarr, 
"  First  Book  of  Physical  Geography  "  (McM.,  $1.10) ;  Tarr,  "  Elemen- 
tary Geology  "  (McM.,  $1.40)  ;  Russell,  "  Rivers  of  North  America  " 
(Put.,  $2.00)  ;  Russell,  "  Lakes  of  North  America  "  (Ginn,  $1.50)  ; 
Russell,  "  Glaciers  of  North  America "  (Ginn,  $1.75) ;  National 
Geographic  Monographs  (A.  B.  C.,  $2.50). 

Animals,  Plants,  etc.  —  "  The  Arid  Regions  of  the  United  States  " 
(N.  G.  M.,  '93,  5:  167);  Wright,  "Four-footed  Americans"  (McM., 
$1.50);  Roosevelt,  "Hunting  Trips  of  a  Ranchman"  (Put.,  $3.00); 
Whitney,  "On  Snowshoes  to  the  Barren  Grounds"  (Harper,  $3.50); 
Heilprin,  "  The  Geographical  and  Geological  Distribution  of  Animals  " 
(App.,  $2.00) ;  Ingersoll,  "Wild  Neighbors"  (McM.,  $1.50) ;  "How 


REFERENCES   TO  BOOKS  97 

the  Settlement  of  North  America  has  affected  Its  Wild  Animals" 
(Bull.  A.  G.  S.,  '85,  17  :  17)  ;  Shaler,  "Nature  and  Man  in  America" 
(Scrib.,  $1.50);  Shaler,  "Domesticated  Animals"  (Scrib.,  $2.50). 

The  United  States.  —  Gannett,  "The  Building  of  a  Nation"  (The 
H.  T.  Thomas  Co.,  New  York,  $2.50);  Baedeker,  "The  United 
States"  (Scrib.,  $3.60);  Tarr,  "Economic  Geology  of  the  United 
States"  (McM.,  $3.50);  Channing,  "Students'  History  of  the 
United  States"  (McM.,  $1.40);  MacCoun,  "An  Historical  Geog- 
raphy of  the  United  States"  (Townsend  MacCoun,  New  York, 
$1.00) ;  Whitney,  "  The  United  States  "  (Little,  Brown  &  Co.,  Boston, 
$2.00) ;  Patton,  "  The  Natural  Resources  of  the  United  States " 
(App.,  $3.00);  King,  "Handbook  of  the  United  States"  (Moses 
King  Corporation,  Buffalo,  N.Y.,  $2.50);  "The  Growth  of  the  United 
States"  (N.  G.  M.,  '98,  9 :  377) ;  "  The  Conduct  of  Great  Businesses  " 
(S.  M.,  several  numbers,  Vols.  21  and  22,  1897);  "Distribution  of 
Manufactures  in  the  United  States"  (Chaut.,  Sept.,  '98,  27:  587); 
"Textile  Industries  of  the  United  States"  (Chaut.,  March,  '99,  28:  538); 
"Modern  Light  House  Service"  (Cats.,  Aug.  and  Sept.,  '94,  6:297 
and  355)  ;  "  The  Life  Saving  Service  "  (P.  S.  M.,  Jan.,  '94,  44  :  346). 

New  England.  —  Davis,  "  Physical  Geography  of  Southern  New 
England"  (A.  B.  C.,  $0.20);  "American  Lumber"  (Chaut.,  Feb.,  '99, 
28:  436);  Thoreau,  "The  Maine  Woods"  (Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co., 
New  York,  $1.50)  ;  "  Fishing  Industries  of  the  United  States"  (Chaut., 
Jan.,  '98,  26  :  387) ;  "  New  England  Fisheries  "  (N.  E.  M.,  Apr.,  '94, 
10:229);  Kipling,  "Captains  Courageous"  Cent.,  $1.50);  "The 
Granite  Industry  in  New  England "  (N.  E.  M.,  Feb.,  '92,  5  :  742) ; 
"Cotton  Manufactures  of  New  England"  (Chaut.,  Apr.,  '93,  17:37); 
"  Cotton  Spinning  in  North  and  South  "  (P.  S.  M.,  Oct.,  '90,  37  :  798) ; 
"  The  Manufacture  of  Wool  "  (P.  S.  M.,  June,  July,  Aug.,  '91,  39  : 176, 
289,  and  454) ;  "  Leather  Making  "  (P.  S.  M.,  July,  '92,  41  :  339)  ; 
"  The  Manufacture  of  Boots  and  Shoes  "  (P.  S.  M.,  Aug.,  '92,  41 :  496); 
"  Boston  at  the  Century's  End  "  (H.  M.,  Nov.,  '99,  99  :  823). 

Middle  Atlantic  States.  —  Gilbert,  "  Niagara  Falls  and  Their  His- 
tory" (A.  B.  C.,  $0.20);  "The  Coal  Industry"  (Chaut.,  Jan.,  '93, 
16  :  416) ;  Articles  on  Iron  and  Steel  (Cass.,  five  papers,  July  to  Nov., 
'93,  Vols.  4  and  5 ;  Feb.,  '00,  17  :  259  ;  McClure,  June,  '94,  3  :  3 ;  H.  M., 
March,  '94,  88  :  587)  ;  "  The  Manufacture  of  Iron  "  (P.  S.  M.,  Dec.,  '90; 
Feb.  and  March,  '91,  38 : 145,  449,  and  586) ;  "  The  Manufacture  of 


98  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

Steel  "  (P.  S.  M.,  Oct.,  Nov.,  '91,  39  :  729,  and  40  : 15)  ;  Articles  on  Ship 
Building  (Cass.,  July,  '92,  2  : 157  ;  Aug.,  '97,  12  :  341,  and  393  ;  March, 
'98, 13  :  385) ;  "  Canning  Industry  in  the  United  States  "  (Chaut.,  Nov., 
'98,  28  : 126)  ;  "  The  Water  Front  of  New  York  (S.  M.,  Oct.,  '99,  26  : 
385);  "The  City  of  Homes"  (H.  M.,  June,  '94,  89:3);  "The  New 
Baltimore"  (//.  M.,  Feb.,  '96,  92:331);  "Washington  Society." 
(H.  M.,  March  and  April,  '93,  86 :  586  and  674). 

Southern  States.  —  Hayes, " The  Southern  Appalachians"  (A.  B.  C., 
$0.20);  Ralph,  "Dixie,  or  Southern  Scenes  and  Sketches"  (Harper, 
$2.50,  published  originally  in  H.  M.,  1892-95);  Brooks,  "Cotton,  Its 
Uses,  Culture,  etc."  (Spon  and  Chamberlain,  New  York,  $3.00) ; 
"  Culture  and  Preparation  of  Cotton  in  the  United  States "  (Cos., 
March, '93,  14:539);  "Sugar  in  the  United  States"  (Chaut.,  June, 
'9*  15:290;  Oct.,  '92,  16:36);  "Rice  and  Its  Culture"  (P.  S.  M., 
Oct.,  '90,  37  :  827)  ;  «  The  Old  Dominion  "  (//.  M.,  Dec.,  '93,  88  :  4)  ; 
"Subtropical  Florida"  (S.  M.,  March,  '94,  15  :  345)  ;  "  Texas  "  (//.  M., 
Sept.,  '93,  87  :  561);  "  An  Indian  Commonwealth  "  (Indian  Territory) 
(//.  M.,  Nov.,  '93,87:884). 

Central  States.  — Dryer,  "Studies  in  Indiana  Geography"  (Inland 
Pub.  Co.,  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  $0.50);  Hovey,  "Celebrated  American 
Caverns"  (R.  Clarke  Co.,  Cincinnati,  O.,  $2.00);  "The  Mammoth 
Cave"  (Cent.  May.,  March,  '98,  33 : 643);  "The  Development  of  Rail- 
roads in  the  United  States"  (Chaut.,  Oct.,  '94,  20:  1);  "In  White 
Pine  Forests"  (Cass.,  Sept.,  '94,  6:408);  "Wheat  and  Its  Distribu- 
tion "  (Cos.,  Nov.,  '98,  26 : 114);  "Beet  Sugar  Industry  in  the  United 
States "  (Special  Report,  Department  of  Agriculture,  AVashington) ; 
"Ranching"  (//.  M.,  Feb.  and  March,  '94,  88:350  and  515);  "The 
Chicago  Packing  Industry  "  (Cos.,  Oct.,  '99,  27  :  599) ;  "  Copper  Mining 
in  the  United  States"  (Cass.,  Jan.,  '97,  11:215);  "Chicago"  (S.  M., 
June, '95,  17:663). 

Western  States.  — Parkman,  "The  Oregon  Trail"  (Little,  Brown 
&  Co.,  Boston,  $1.00);  "The  New  Northwest"  (H.  M.,  Jan.  '98,  96: 
299)  ;  Ralph,  "  Our  Great  West  "  (Harper,  $2.50,  published  originally 
in  H.  M.,  1892-94) ;  "The  Pacific  Coast  Guide  Book  "  (R.  McN.,  $1.00); 
"  The  Grand  Canon  "  (H.  M.,  Aug.,  '98,  97  :  377)  ;  "  The  Great  Walled 
River"  (Bull.  A.  G.  S.,  '87,  19:113);  "Gold  and  Silver  Mining" 
(Chaut.,  March,  '97,  24:670);  "From  Mine  to  Mint"  (Cass.,  May, 
'94,  6:3);  "Lumbering  in  the  Northwest"  (Cos.,  May,  '93,  15:63); 


REFERENCES   TO  BOOKS  99 

«  The  Redwood  Forest  of  the  Pacific  Coast "  (N.  G.  M.,  '99,  10 : 145) ; 
"  The  United  States  Forest  Reserves  "  (P.  S.  M.,  Feb.,  '98,  52  : 456) ; 
Newell,  "  Irrigation  on  the  Great  Plains  "  ('96  Year  Book,  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Washington,  p.  197);  "The  Grape  Gatherers"  (Cos., 
Oct.,  '99,  27  :  612) ;  "  Fruit  Industry  in  California  "  (P.  S.  M.,  Dec., 
'93,44:200). 

Dependencies,  etc.,  Alaska.  —  Scidmore,  "  Guide  Book  to  Alaska" 
(App.,  11.25);  Swineford,  "Alaska"  (R.  McN.,  $1.00);  "Alaska" 
(B.  Amer.  R.,  $0.25)  ;  "Geographical  Notes  in  Alaska"  (Bull  A.  G.  S., 
'96,  28:1);  "Alaska"  (N.  G.  M.,  '98,  9:  105-190,  twelve  articles); 
"Mountaineering  in  Alaska"  (Bull.  A.  G.  S.,  '96,  28:217);  "An 
Expedition  Through  the  Yukon  District"  (N.  G.  M.,  '92,  4:  117); 
"Life  on  a  Yukon  Trail"  (N.  G.  M.,  '99,  10:377  and  457);  "The 
Rescue  of  the  Whalers"  (H.  M.,  June,  '99,  99:3);  "The  Alaskan 
Boundary"  (.V.  G.  M.,  '99,  10:425). 

Cuba  and  Porto  Rico.  —  See  under  West  Indies. 

Hawaiian  Islands.  —  Alexander, "  A  Brief  History  of  the  Hawaiian 
People"  (A.  B.  C.,  $1.50);  Whitney,  "  Hawaiian  America"  (Harper, 
$2.50);  Young,  "The  Real  Hawaii"  (Doubleday  and  McClure  Co., 
New  York,  $1.50) ;  "  Hawaii  "  (B.  Amer.  R.,  $0.25) ;  "  Report  of  the 
Hawaiian  Commission"  (State  Department,  Washington);  "The 
Hawaiian  Islands"  (Bull.  A.  G.  S.,  '89,  21:149);  Wallace,  "Island 
Life  "  (McM.,  $1.75) ;  Articles  on  Samoa  (AT.  G.  M.,  '99,  10 :  207). 

Philippines. —Worcester,  "  The  Philippine  Islands"  (McM.,  ($4.00) ; 
Young-husband,  "  The  Philippines  and  Round  About  "  (McM.,  $2.50)  ; 
"  Manila  and  the  Philippines  "  (S.  M.,  July,  '98,  24  :  12)  ;  "  Life  in 
Manila"  (Cent.  Mag.,  Aug.,  '98,  34 :  563)  ;  "  Report  of  the  Philippine 
Commission "  (State  Department,  Washington)  ;  Articles  on  the 
Philippines  (N.  G.  M.,  '98,  9  :  257-304  ;  '99,  10  :  33-72  ;  '00,  11  :  1)  ; 
"  The  Philippine  Islands  "  (Bull.  A.  G.  S.,  '83,  15  :  73). 

Canada.  —  Hatton  and  Harvey,  "  Newfoundland  "  (Doyle  and 
Whipple,  Boston,  $2.50)  ;  "  The  Relation  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada "  (Senate  Reports,  No.  1530,  Washington) ;  Ralph,  "  On 
Canada's  Frontier"  (Harper,  $2.50,  published  originally  in  H.  M., 
1892-95  ;  Parkin,  "  The  Great  Dominion  "  (McM.,  $1.75)  ;  Baedeker, 
"  The  Dominion  of  Canada  "  (Scrib.,  $1.50)  ;  Canadian  Guide  Book, 
(App.,  $1.00)  ;  Statistical  Year  Book  (each  year  by  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Ottawa)  ;  "  Canada,  the  Land  of  Water  Ways  "  (Bull. 


100  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

A.  G.  S.,  '90,  22  :  351)  ;  Articles  on  Lumbering  (C.  M.,  Apr.,  '94,  2: 
549  and  556). 

The  Far  North.  —  Mrs.  Peary,  "  My  Arctic  Journal "  (Contemporary 
Publishing  Co.,  New  York,  $2.00)  ;  Hayes,  "  The  Land  of  Desolation  " 
(Harper,  $1.75);  Nansen,  "First  Crossing  of  Greenland"  (L.  G., 
$1.25)  ;  "  Days  in  the  Arctic  "  (H.  M.,  Sept.  '98,  97  :  499)  ;  "  The 
Glaciers  of  Greenland"  (P.  S.  M.,  Nov.  '94,  46  : 1)  ;  "  Greenland  and 
the  Greenlanders  "  (P.  S.  M.,  July  '90,  37 :  302)  ;  "  The  Arctic  High- 
lander "  (S.  M.,  Feb.,  '92,  11:241);  "A  Day's  Hunting  Among  the 
Eskimos  "  (P.  S.  M.,  Feb.,  '95,  46  :  446)  ;  Boas,  "  A  Year  Among  the 
Eskimo  "  (Bull.  A.  G.  S.,  '87,  19  :  383). 

Mexico.  — "  Guide  to  Mexico"  (App.,  $1.50);  Baedeker,  "The 
United  States "  (with  an  excursion  into  Mexico),  (Scrib.,  $3.60)  ; 
Bancroft,  "  Resources  and  Development  of  Mexico  "  (The  Bancroft 
Co.,  San  Francisco,  $4.50)  ;  Romero,  "  Geographical  and  Statistical 
Notes  on  Mexico  "  (Put.,  $2.00)  ;  Romero,  "  Coffee  and  India  Rubber 
Culture  in  Mexico  "  (Put.,  $3.00)  ;  "  An  Outpost  of  Civilization  " 
(H.  I/.,  Dec.,  '93,  88:71);  Griffin,  "Mexico  of  To-day"  (Harper, 
$1.50)  ;  Lummis,  "  The  Awakening  of  a  Nation  "  (Harper,  $2.50)  ; 
"  Mexico  "  (B.  Amer.  R.,  $0.50). 

Central  America.  —  Belt,  "  Naturalist  in  Nicaragua  "  (Scribner  and 
Welford,  New  York,  $3.00)  ;  Calvo,  "  The  Republic  of  Costa  Rica  " 
(R.  McN.,  $2.00)  ;  Charles,  "  Honduras  "  (R.  McN.,  $1.50)  ;  Hand- 
books (B.  Amer.  R.)  on  Costa  Rica,  Honduras,  Salvador,  and  Nicara- 
gua (each,  $0.35,  Guatemala,  $0.25)  ;  Monthly  Bulletins  of  the  Same 
Bureau  (each,  $0.25)  also  contain  information  about  American 
Republics  ;  "  Three  Gringos  in  Central  America  "  (H.  M.,  Sept.  and 
Oct.,  '91,  91  :  490  and  730)  ;  "  India  Rubber  and  Gutta  Percha " 
(P.  S.  M.,  March,  '97,  50  :  679)  ;  «  Across  Nicaragua  "  (N.  G.  M.,  '89, 
1 :  315)  ;  Articles  on  the  Nicaragua  Canal  (N.  G.  M.,  '99,  10:  297). 

West  Indies.  —  Hill,  "  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  "  (Cent.,  $3.00) ;  Rod- 
way,  "  The  West  Indies  and  the  Spanish  Main  "  (Put.,  $1.75)  ;  Kings- 
ley,  "At  Last:  A  Christmas  in  the  West  Indies"  (McM.,  $1.25); 
"  The  Foreign  Commerce  of  Our  Possessions,"  etc.  (Treasury  Depart- 
ment, Washington)  ;  Handbooks  on  Haiti  and  Santo  Domingo  (B. 
Amer.  R.,  $0.35,  each);  "Cuba"  (N.  G.  M.,  '98,  9:193);  "Porto 
Rico  "  (N.  G.  M.,  '99,  10  :  93)  ;  "  Haiti  the  Unknown  "  (H.  M.,  Aug., 
'99,  99  : 365)  ;  «  Havana  since  the  Occupation  "  (S.  M.,  July,  '99,  26  : 


REFERENCES   TO  BOOKS    ;       / 

86) ;  "  Aspects  of  Nature  in  the  West  Indies  "  (S.  M.,  July,  '93,  14 : 
101);  "How  the  Bananas  Grow"  (Cos.,  Feb.,  '98,  24:365);  Heilprin, 
"The  Bermuda  Islands"  (A.  Heilprin,  Philadelphia,  $3.50). 

Government  Publications.  —  Only  a  very  few  references  are  made  to 
the  many  government  publications  of  geographic  interest.  There  are 
far  too  many  to  refer  to.  For  instance,  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
Annual  Report  usually  contains  articles  on  geographic  subjects,  and 
the  Fish  Commission  has  published  many  excellent  accounts  of  the 
different  fishing  industries.  From  the  Weather  Bureau  are  issued  not 
merely  weather  maps,  but  Annual  Reports  and  Monthly  Weather 
Reviews. 

Among  the  publications  of  the  Geological  Survey  are  reports  upon 
Irrigation,  Annual  Reports  containing  many  excellent  accounts  of 
the  geology  of  interesting  regions,  especially  mining  regions,  and 
also  Annual  Reports  on  the  Mineral  Resources  of  the  country,  with 
statistics.  Besides  these,  the  Geological  Survey  issues  topographic 
maps  (five  cents  each,  or  two  cents  by  the  hundred).  A  list  of  these 
maps  can  be  obtained  upon  application,  and  the  teacher  may  find  a 
map  of  the  region  where  the  school  is  situated. 

A  great  range  of  topics  is  covered  by  the  various  Annual  Reports 
(called  Year  Books)  and  Bulletins  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
upon  such  subjects  as  farming,  various  crops,  forestry,  botany,  mam- 
mals, irrigation,  etc.  Special  reports  of  importance  (some  of  which 
are  referred  to  above)  are  issued  by  the  Treasury  Department,  which 
also  issues  Statistical  Abstracts  on  commerce,  finance,  population,  etc. 
From  the  State  Department,  besides  valuable  special  papers  (like  the 
Report  of  the  Philippine  Commission),  are  issued  the  Consular  Re- 
ports, which  have  articles  and  notes  upon  foreign  industries,  etc.  A 
wealth  of  geographical  information  is  contained  in  the  various  Census 
volumes.  Besides  these,  there  are  other  reports,  as  that  on  the  Pre- 
cious Metals,  issued  annually  by  the  Director  of  the  Mint,  the  Report 
of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  and  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner  on 
Indian  affairs.  The  maps  of  the  United  States  Coast  Survey  will  be 
found  of  value,  especially  in  those  schools  located  on  the  coast,  which 
should  certainly  have  the  maps  of  their  immediate  locality.  Many 
states  also  issue  valuable  reports  on  agriculture,  mining,  manufactur- 
ing, etc. 

In  order  to  find  out  about  the  government  publications,  one  can 


102  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

often  obtain  a  list  of  those  issued  by  a  given  bureau  by  writing  to  the 
Superintendent  of  Public  Documents,  Washington.  A  monthly  list 
of  all  government  publications  is  also  prepared  by  the  Superintendent 
of  Public  Documents,  thus  permitting  one  to  keep  track  of  new  publi- 
cations. Some  of  the  publications  must  be  purchased,  but  many  may 
be  obtained  by  writing  to  one's  congressman  or  senator,  to  whom  copies 
are  given  for  free  distribution  among  constituents.  The  great  major- 
ity of  government  documents  are  issued  for  free  distribution.  Appli- 
cations for  these,  in  moderation,  are  invariably  granted  when  needed 
for  schools,  provided  the  quota  is  not  already  exhausted. 

GENERAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Earth ;  Winds  and  Rain.  —  Books  by  Davis  and  byTarr  referred  to 
under  "Physiography";  Ward,  "Practical  Exercises  in  Elementary 
Meteorology"  (Ginn,  $1.12). 

Ocean  Currents,  etc.  —  Books  by  Davis  and  by  Tarr  (see  "  Physi- 
ography ")  ;  Shaler,  "  Sea  and  Land  "  (Scrib.,  $2.50)  ;  Pillsbury,  "  The 
Gulf  Stream  "  (U.  S.  Coast  Survey,  Washington)  ;  Darwin,  "  Tides  " 
(Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  N.Y.,  $2.00)  ;  Guyot,  "  The  Earth  and 
Man"  (Scrib.,  $1.75);  "The  Depths  of  the  Sea"  (S.  M.,  July,  '92, 
12:77);  "How  the  Sea  is  Sounded"  (P.  S.  J/.,  Jan.,  '94,  44:334). 

GENERAL,  FOR  SOUTH  AMERICA,  EUROPE,  ETC. 

Among  the  many  valuable  but  expensive  books  of  reference  men- 
tion may  be  made  of  Reclus'  "  The  Earth  and  its  Inhabitants " 
(App.,  19  vols.,  $5.00  each);  Stanford's  "Compendiums  of  Geogra- 
phy "  (Scrib.,  8  vols.  at  $4.50  and  2  vols.  at  $8.40)  ;  and  Baedeker's 
Guide  Books  (Scrib.),  price  variable.  The  latter  may  be  found  in 
the  libraries  of  friends  who  have  travelled  abroad. 

There  are  a  number  of  series  for  young  people  which  contain  good 
material:  for  example,  Butterworth,  "Zigzag  Journey  Series"  (Dana 
Estes  &  Co.,  Boston,  18  vols.,  $1.50  each);  Hale,  "Family  Flight 
Series"  (Lothrop  Publishing  Co.,  Boston,  5  vols.,  $1.50  each) ;  Champ- 
ney,  "Three  Vassar  Girls"  series  (Dana  Estes  &  Co.,  Boston,  11  vols., 
$0.75  each). 

Every  teacher  of  geography  will  find  Mill's  "  International  Geog- 
raphy "  (App.,  $3.50)  and  "  The  Statesman's  Year  Book  "  (McM., 


REFERENCES   TO  BOOKS  103 

$3.00)  of  inestimable  value.  For  physiography  and  climate  some 
help  may  be  gained  from  Tarr,  "  First  Book  of  Physical  Geography  " 
(McM.,  $1.10). 

SOUTH  AMERICA 

There  is  a  Handbook  for  each  of  the  republics,  issued  by  the 
Bureau  of  American  Republics,  Washington,  D.C.,  price  from  $0.30 
to  $0.50  each.  Ballou,  "Equatorial  America"  (H.  M.  C.,  $1.50); 
Carpenter,  Geographical  Reader,  "  South  America  "  (A.  B.  C.,  $0.60)  ; 
Childs,  "  South  American  Republics "  (H.  B.,  $3.50) ;  Curtis,  "  Cap- 
itals of  Spanish  America "  (H.  B.,  $3.50) ;  Coe,  "  Our  American 
Neighbors  "  (S.  B.  C.,  $0.60) ;  President  Hubbard's  Annual  Address, 
" South  America"  (N.  G.  M.,  March,  '91,  3  : 1)  ;  "Climatic  Notes  made 
during  a  Voyage  around  South  America"  (/.  S.  G.,  Sept.  and  Oct.,  '98, 
2  : 241  and  297)  ;  "  A  Winter  Voyage  through  the  Straits  of  Magellan  " 
(N.  G.  M.,  May,  '97,  8 : 129) ;  "  The  First  Landing  on  the  Antarctic 
Continent"  (Cent.  Mag.,  Jan.,  '96,  51:432);  "Magellan  and  the  Pa- 
cific "  (H.  M.,  Aug.,  '90,  81 : 357)  ;  Bates,  "  A  Naturalist  on  the  River 
Amazon"  (Humboldt  Library,  New  York,  $1.00);  Andrews,  "Brazil, 
Its  Conditions  and  Prospects  "  (App.,  $1.50);  Ford,  "Tropical  America" 
(Scrib.,  $2.00);  "The  Valley  of  the  Amazon  and  its  Development" 
(/.  S.  G.,  Sept.,  '97,  1  : 193)  ;  «  The  Argentine  Capital "  (H.  M., 
March,  '91,  82:491);  "Argentine  Provincial  Sketches"  (H.  M.,  Apr., 
'91,  82:781);  "The  Argentine  People,"  etc.  (H.  M.,  May,  '91,  82: 
863);  "Patagonia"  (N.  G.  M.,  Nov.,  '97,  8:305);  "The  Republic  of 
Uruguay"  (H.  M.,  May,  '91,  82:906);  "The  Republic  of  Paraguay" 
(H.  M.,  July,  '91,  83:222);  Rodway,  "In  the  Guiana  Wilds"  (L/C. 
Page  &  Co.,  Boston,  $1.25);  Curtis,  "Venezuela"  (H.  B.,  $1.25); 
"Venezuela:  her  government,"  etc.  (N.  G.  M.,  Feb.,  '96,  7:49); 
"Glimpses  of  Venezuela  and  Guiana"  (Cent.  Mag.,  July,  '96,  52: 
358) ;  Whymper,  "  Travels  amongst  the  Great  Andes  of  the  Equator  " 
(Scrib.,  $2.50) ;  "  Across  the  Andes  "  (H.  M.,  Sept.,  '90,  81  : 489) ; 
"The  Ascent  of  Illimani"  and  "Climbing  Mount  Sorata  "  (//.  M., 
Oct.  and  Nov.,  '99,  99 : 657  and  863);  "  The  Road  to  Bolivia  "  (N.  G.  M., 
June  and  July,  1900,  11:209  and  264);  "A  Journey  in  Ecuador" 
(AT.  G.  M.,  July,  '96,  7  : 238) ;  Pratt,  "  Pizarro  :  Conquest  of  Peru  " 
(E.  P.  C.,  $0.30) ;  "  Impressions  of  Peru  "  (H.  M.,  Jan.,  '91,  82  : 253)  ; 
Smith,  "  Temperate  Chile  "  (McM.,  $3.50)  ;  "  The  Climatic  Control  of 


104  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

Occupation  in  Chile  "  (/.  S.  G.,  Dec.,  '97,  1 : 289) ;  Articles  on  Chile 
(H.  M.,  Oct.  and  Nov.,  '90,  81 : 764  and  901) ;  "  A  Day  in  the  Falk- 
land Islands  "  (J.  S.  G.,  Feb.,  '98,  2  : 49). 

EUROPE 

Lyde,  "  A  Geography  of  Europe  "  (McM.,  $0.50)  ;  Coe,  "  Modern 
Europe"  (S.  B.  C.,  $0.60);  Emerson,  "European  Glimpses  and 
Glances "  (Cassell  &  Co.,  New  York,  $1.00)  ;  King,  "  Northern 
Europe  "  (Lee  &  Shepard,  Boston,  $0.60)  ;  Davis,  "  The  Rulers  of  the 
Mediterranean  "  (H.  B.  $1.25)  ;  "  From  the  Black  Forest  to  the  Black 
Sea  "  (H.  M.,  Feb.  to  Aug.,  '92,  Vols.  84  and  85)  ;  Lyde,  «  A  Geogra- 
phy of  the  British  Isles"  (McM.,  $0.60)  ;  Green,  "A  Short  Geography 
of  the  British  Islands"  (McM.,  $0.90) ;  Davis,  "Our  English  Cousins" 
(H.  B.,  $1.25);  Pratt,  "Stories  of  England"  (E.  P.  C.,  $0.40);  Geikie, 
"  The  Scenery  in  Scotland  "  (McM.,  $3.50)  ;  Corbin,  "  Schoolboy  Life 
in  England  "  (H.  B.,  $1.25)  ;  "  The  Temperature  of  the  British  Isles  " 
(/.  S.  G.,  Dec.,  '98,  2  :  361)  ;  "  The  House  of  Commons,"  etc.  (//.  M., 
Dec.,  '93,  88  :  34)  ;  "  A  General  Election  in  England  "  (//.  M.,  Sept.,  '93, 
87 : 489);  "  London  as  seen  by  C.  D.  Gibson  "  (S.  M.,  Feb.-Jime,  '97, 
Vol.  21)  ;  "  The  Geography  of  Greater  London  "  (J.  S.  G.,  Feb.,  '01, 
5  :  41)  ;  "  The  Best-governed  City  in  the  World  "  (H.  M.,  June,  '90, 
81 :  99)  ;  "  Notes  on  the  Geography  of  Scotland  "  (/.  S.  G.,  May,  '98, 
2  : 161)  ;  "  From  Home  to  Throne  in  Belgium  "  (//.  M.,  Apr.  '97,  94  : 
722);  "Principal  Cities  of  Holland"  (Chaut.,  June,  '98,  27:227); 
"Land  Wrested  from  the  Sea"  (Chaut.,  Aug.,  '95,  21:597);  "The 
Picturesque  Quality  of  Holland  "  (S.  M.,  2  :  160  ;  5  :  162 ;  10  :  621)  ; 
Macdonald,  "  Paris  of  the  Parisians  "  (Lippincott,  Philadelphia,  $1.50) ; 
Davis,  "  About  Paris  "  (H.  B.,  $1.25)  ;  "  Present  Condition  of  France  " 
(Chaut.,  Dec.,  '98,  28  :  280)  ;  "  Commerce  and  Manufactures  of  France  " 
(Chaut.,  Aug.,  '97,  25  :  480)  ;  "  The  French  Army  "  (//.  M.,  Apr.,  '91, 
82  :  653)  ;  Finck,  "  Spain  and  Morocco  "  (Scrib.,  $1.25)  ;  Stoddard, 
"Spanish  Cities"  (Scrib.,  $1.50);  Stephens,  "Portugal"  (Put.,  $1.50)  ; 
Loring,  "  A  Year  in  Portugal "  (Put.,  $1.50)  ;  "  Up  Gibraltar ;  to 
Tangier;  into  Spain"  (Chaut.,  Aug., '93,  17:515);  Articles  on 
Spanish  Cities  (Cos.,  May-Sept.,  '96,  Vol.  21)  ;  Thomas,  "  Sweden 
and  the  Swedes  "  (Rand,  McNally  &  Co.,  Chicago,  $3.75)  ;  Pratt, 
"  Legends  of  Norseland  "  (E.  P.  C.,  $0.40)  ;  «  A  Glacier  Excursion  in 


REFERENCES   TO  BOOKS  105 

Norway  "  (Cos.,  Oct.,  '97,  23  :  625)  ;  Stepniak,  "  The  Russian  Peas- 
antry "  (H.  B.,  $1.25)  ;  Stepniak,  "  Russia  under  the  Tzars  "  (Scrib., 
$1.50)  ;  Greene,  "  Army  Life  in  Russia  "  (Scrib.,  $1.25)  ;  "  Baltic 
Russia  "  (H.  M.,  July,  '90,  81  :  295)  ;  «  The  Czar's  People  "  (H.  M., 
June,  '98,  97  :  3)  ;  «  Awakened  Russia  "  (H.  M.,  May,  '98,  96  :  817)  ; 
"Finland"  etc.  (//.  M.,  Feb.,  '91,  82:330);  "The  People  of  the 
Reindeer "  (Laplanders)  (Cent.  Mag.,  Aug.,  '99,  58  :  582)  ;  Pratt, 
"  Stories  from  Old  Germany  "  (E.  P.  C.,  $0.40)  ;  «  The  Government 
of  German  Cities"  (Cent.  Mag.,  June,  '94,  48:296);  "Some  im- 
pressions of  Berlin"  (Cos.,  Jan.,  1900,  28:315);  "Impressions  of 
Berlin  "  (//.  M.,  Aug.,  '90,  81 :  340)  ;  "  Stuttgart "  (H.  M.,  Jan.  and 
Feb.,  '98,  96  : 269  and  382)  ;  "  The  German  Army  of  To-day  "  (H.  M., 
May,  '92,  84  :  869)  ;  "  German  Universities  "  (Chaut.,  Aug.,  '96,  23  : 
560);  "The  German  Royal  Family"  (Chaut.,  Sept.,  '96,  23:668); 
Articles  on  Germany  (Chaut.,  Oct.,  '94-Nov.,  '95,  Vols.  20-22)  ;  Lub- 
bock,  "  The  Scenery  of  Switzerland  "  (McM.,  $1.50)  ;  "  A  Thousand 
Miles  through  the  Alps  "  (S.  M.,  June,  '96,  20 :  28)  ;  "  Venice  in 
Easter  "  (H.  M.,  Apr.  '95,  90  :  738)  ;  "  Italian  Gardens  "  (H.  M.,  June 
and  Aug.,  '93,  87  : 165  and  393)  ;  "  The  Corso  of  Rome  "  (S.  M.,  Oct., 
'91,  10  :  399)  ;  "  St.  Peter's  "  (Cent.  Mag.,  July,  '96,  52  :  323)  ;  «  The 
Italian  Army"  (H.  M.,  Aug.,  '92,  85:419);  Whitman,  "Austria" 
(Put.,  $1.50)  ;  "  Vienna  as  a  Type  City"  (J.  S.  G.,  May,  '99,  4  :  175)  ; 
"The  Tyroleans"  (Cos.,  Sept.,  '98,  25:487);  "The  Banderium  of 
Hungary  "  (S.  M.,  Mar.,  '97,  21 : 267);  "  The  Austro-Hungarian  Army  " 
(H.  M.,  June,  '92,  85  :  50)  ;  "  Austria  "  (/.  S.  G.,  Dec.,  '98,  2  :  394)  ; 
"Wheeling  in  Tyrolean  Valleys"  (Cent.  Mag.,  Apr.,  '97,  53  :  866)  ; 
«  Constantinople  "  (S.  M.,  Dec.,  '93^Tan.,  '94,  Vols.  14  and  15)  ;  "  A 
Visit  to  Athens  "  (H.  M.,  June,  96,  93  :  3)  ;  "  In  the  Wake  of  a  W^ar  " 
(Greece)  (H.  M.,  Mar.,  '98,  96  :  548). 

ASIA 

Lyde,  "A  Geography  of  Asia"  (McM.,  $0.50);  Carpenter,  "Asia" 
(A.  B.  C.,  $0.60);  Smith,  "Life  in  Asia"  (S.  B.  C.,  $0.60);  "Across 
Asia  on  a  Bicycle"  (Cent.  Mag.,  May-Oct.,  '94,  Vol.  48);  Series  of 
articles  on  Southwest  Asia  and  India  (H.  M.,  '90,  '93-'95,  Vols.  81, 
87-91);  Mathews,  "New  Testament  Times  in  Palestine"  (McM., 
$0.75)  ;  Douglas,  "  The  Land  where  Jesus  Christ  lived  "  (Thomas 


106  HOME  GEOGHAPHY 

Nelson  &  Sons,  New  York,  $1.00);  Curtis,  "  Howadji  in  Syria" 
(H.  B.,  $1.50);  "The  Holy  Places  of  Islam"  (H.  M.,  Nov.,  '92,  85: 
813);  "The  Russo-Siberian  Plain"  (/.  S.  G.,  March,  '00,  4:81); 
"A  Winter  Journey  through  Siberia"  (Cent.  Mag.,  Sept.,  '91,  42: 
643) ;  Articles  on  Siberia  (H.  M.,  July  and  Aug.,  '98,  97  :  210  and 
327) ;  Lyall,  "  The  Rise  of  the  British  Dominion  in  India  "  (Scrib., 
$1.50);  Pratt,  "Stories  of  India"  (E.  P.  C.,  $0.40);  Kipling,  "The 
Jungle  Books"  (Cent.,  $1.50);  "Elephant  and  Tiger  Hunting  in 
India"  (H.  M.,  July  and  Oct.,  '92,  85:290  and  706);  "An  American 
in  Tibet"  (Cent.  Mag.,  Nov.,  '90-March,  '91,  Vol.  41);  "Among  the 
Farthest  People"  (Tibet)  (Cos.,  Feb.,  1900,  28:443);  "Life  in  the 
Malay  Peninsula"  (Cent.  Mag.,  Feb.,  '93,  45:577);  Colquhoun, 
"  Overland  to  China  "  (II.  B.,  $-3.00) ;  Colquhoun,  "  China  in  Trans- 
formation" (H.  B.,  $3.00);  "The  Crisis  in  China"  (H.  B.,  $1.00); 
Little,  "Through  the  Yangtse  Gorges"  (Scrib.,  $2.50);  Ralph,  "Alone 
in  China  "  (H.  B.,  $2.00) ;  Pratt,  "  Stories  of  China"  (E.  P.  C.,  $0.40)  ; 
"  In  the  City  of  Canton  "  (Cent.  Mag.,  Nov.,  '94,  49  :  59)  ;  "  The  Great 
Wall  of  China"  (Cent.  Mag.,  Jan.,  '93,  45:327  and  332);  Series  of 
Articles  on  China  (Cent.  Mag.,  Aug.-Oct.,  '99,  Vol.  58)  ;  also  (H.  M., 
June-Aug.,  '95,  Vol.  91);  Griffis,  "  Corea :  The  Hermit  Nation" 
(Scrib.,  $2.50);  "Korea  and  the  Koreans"  (N.  G.  M.,  '90,  2:  231); 
Norman,  "The  Real  Japan"  (Scrib.,  $1.50) ;  Scidmore,  "Jinrikisha 
Days  in  Japan"  (H.  B.,  $2.00);  Bramhall,  "Wee  Ones  of  Japan" 
(H.  B.,  $1.00);  Series  of  Articles  on  Japan  (H.  M.,  '94  and  '95,  Vols. 
89  and  90) ;  also  (S.  M.,  Apr. -June,  '93,  Vol.  13)  ;  also  (S.  M.,  '90  and 
'91,  Vols.  8  and  9)  ;  "  Japanese  Women  "  (H.  M.,  Dec.,  '90,  82  :  119) ; 
"  An  American  Artist  in  Japan  "  (Cent.  Mag.,  Sept.,  '89,  38  :  670). 

AFRICA 

Lyde,  "  A  Geography  of  Africa  "  (McM.,  $0.50) ;  Stanley  and  others, 
"Africa:  Its  Partition  and  Its  Future"  (Dodd,  Mead  &  Co.,  New 
York,  $1.25);  Badlam,  "Views  in  Africa"  (S.  B.  C.,  $0.72);  Annual 
Address  of  President  Hubbard,  "  Africa,  Its  Past  and  Future  * 
(N.  G.  M.,  '89,  1 :  99) ;  "  Africa  since  1888  "  (N.  G.  M.,  May,  '96,  7 : 
157);  Curtis,  "Nile  Notes  of  a  Howadji"  (H.  B.,  $1.50);  Edwards, 
"  A  Thousand  Miles  up  the  Nile  "  (G.  Routledge  &  Sons,  New  York, 
$2.50);  Rawlinson,  "The  Story  of  Ancient  Egypt"  (Put.,  $1.50); 


REFERENCES   TO  BOOKS  107 

"  The  Egyptian  Sudan  and  Its  History  "  (/.  S.  G.,  Feb.,  '99,  3 : 41) ; 
"In  Fascinating  Cairo"  (Cent.  Mag.,  Oct.,  '99,  58:811);  "Climatic 
Control  in  the  Desert "  (/.  S.  G.,  Sept.  '99,  4  :  255) ;  "  A  Sahara 
Caravan  "  (S.  M.,  March,  '93,  13  :  315) ;  "  Cairo  in  1890 "  (H.  M., 
Oct.,  Nov.,  '91,  83:651  and  828);  "Peeps  into  Barbary"  (H.  M., 
Aug.,  '96,  93  :  387);  "  Tripoli  of  Barbary"  (S.  M.,  Jan.,  '90,  7  :  37); 
"An  Arab  Fete  in  the  Desert"  (Cos.,  Apr.,  '97,  22:665);  Bryce, 
"  Impressions  of  South  Africa  "  (Cent.,  $3'.50)  ;  Stanley,  "  Through 
South  Africa"  (Scrib.,  $1.00)  ;  Hillegas,  "  Oom  Paul's  People"  (App., 
$1.50)  ;  Bigelow,  "  White  Man's  Africa  "  (H.  B.,  $2.50)  ;  Younghus- 
band,  "  South  Africa  of  To-day  "  (McM.,  $2.00) ;  "  Empire-building 
in  South  Africa  "  (Cos.,  March,  '96,  20  :  472)  ;  Drummond,  "  Tropical 
Africa"  (Scrib.,  $1.00);  Stanley,  "My  Kalulu"  (Scrib.,  $1.50);  Stanley, 
"  My  Dark  Companions  "  (Scrib.,  $2.00)  ;  "  The  Pygmies  of  the  Great 
African  Forest"  (S.  M.,  Jan.,  '91,  9:3);  "Abyssinia"  (N.  G.  M., 
March,  '01,  12:89);  "The  Gold  Coast,  Ashanti  and  Kumassi" 
(N.  G.  M.,  Jan.,  '97,  8:1);  " Life  among  the  Congo  Savages"  (S.  M., 
Fe'b., '90,  7:135). 

AUSTRALIA,  ETC. 

Davitt,  "  Life  and  Progress  in  Australasia"  (New  Amsterdam  Book 
Co.,  New  York,  $2.50);  Pratt,  "Stories  of  Australasia"  (E.  P.  C., 
$0.40) ;  Kellogg,  "  Australia  and  the  Islands  of  the  Sea "  (S.  B.  C., 
$0.68);  Ballou,  "Under  the  Southern  Cross"  (H.  M.  C.,  $1.50); 
"  The  Australian  Horseman  "  (H.  M.,  July,  '99,  99  :  257)  ;  "  Convicts 
and  Bushrangers  in  Australia"  (Cos.,  May  and  June,  '96,  21:91 
and  173)  ;  "  New  Zealand  "  (H.  M.,  Aug.,  '91,  83  :  327)  ;  Chalmers, 
"  Pioneer  Life  and  Work  in  New  Guinea  "  (F.  H.  Revell  &  Co.,  New 
York,  $1.50);  Reeves,  "Brown  Men  and  Women"  (McM.,  $3.50); 
"A  Little  Journey  in  Java"  (H.  M.,  May,  '94,  88:918);  "Down  to 
Java  "  (Cent.  Mag.,  Aug.,  '97,  54 :  527)  ;  "  The  Climate  of  the  Philip- 
pine Islands"  (/.  S.  G.,  Dec.,  '99,  3:  361);  "The  Samoan  Islands" 
(N.  G.  M.,  Nov.,  '00,  11:417);  "Samoa"  (N.  G.  M.,  June,  '00, 
10 : 207). 


Tarr  and  McMurry's  Geographies 

A  NEW  SERIES  OF  GEOGRAPHIES   IN  THREE  OR    FIVE  VOLUMES 
Size  of  Books  $%  X  7%  inches.     Half-Leather 

By  RALPH    S.    TARR,    B.S.,   F.G.S.A. 

CORNELL  UNIVERSITY 


AND 


FRANK   M.   McMURRY,   Ph.D. 

TEACHERS  COLLEGE,  COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 


TWO  BOOK  SERIES 

Introductory  Geography 

Complete  Geography 

THE  THREE  BOOK  SERIES 

FIRST  BOOK  (4th  and  5th  Years)  Home  Geography  and  the  Earth 

as  a  Whole 

SECOND  BOOK  (6th  Year)  North  America 

THIRD  BOOK  (yth  year)  Europe  and  Other  Continents    . 


60  cents 
$1.00 


60  cents 
75  cents 
75  cents 


THE   FIVE  BOOK  SERIES 

FIRST  PART  (4th  year)  Home  Geography 40  cents 

SECOND  PART  (sth  year)  The  Earth  as  a  Whole      ....  40  cents 

THIRD  PART  (6th  year)  North  America 75  cents 

FOURTH  PART  (jth  year)  Europe,  South  America,  Etc.  ...  50  cents 
FIFTH  PART  (8th  year)  Asia  and  Africa,  with  Review  of  North 

America 40  cents 

To  meet  the  requirements  of  some  courses  of  study,  the  section  from  the  Third 
Book,  treating  of  South  America,  is  bound  up  with  the  Second  Book,  thus  bringing 
North  America  and  South  America  together  in  one  volume. 

The  following  Supplementary  Volumes  have  also  been  prepared,  and  may  be 
had  separately  or  bound  together  with  the  Third  Book  of  the  Three  Book  Series, 
or  the  Fifth  Part  of  the  Five  Book  Series : 

SUPPLEMENTARY    VOLUMES 


Kansas 30  cents 

Ohio 30  cents 


New  York  State  ...  30  cents 
The  New  England  States  .  30  cents 
Utah 40  cents 

In  preparation : 

Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey,  California,  and  Virginia. 

When  ordering,  be  careful  to  specify  the  Book  or  Part  and  the  Series  desired, 
and  whether  with  or  without  the  State  Supplement. 


PUBLISHED    BY 

THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

66    FIFTH    AVENUE,    NEW    YORK 


CHICAGO 
378  Wabash  Ave. 


BOSTON 
1 00  Boylston  St. 


SAN   FRANCISCO 
319-325SansomeSt. 


ATLANTA 
135  Whitehall  St. 


Tarr  and  McMurry's  Geographies 


COMMENTS 

North  Plainfield,  N.J. 

"  I  think  it  the  best  Geography  that  I  have  seen." 

—  H.  J.  WIGHTMAN,  Superintendent. 
Boston,  Mass. 

"I  have  been  teaching  the  subject  in  the  Boston  Normal  School 
for  over  twenty  years,  and  Book  I  is  the  book  I  have  been  looking 
for  for  the  last  ten  years.  It  comes  nearer  to  what  I  have  been 
working  for  than  anything  in  the  geography  line  that  I  have  yet 
seen.  I  congratulate  you  on  the  good  work." 

—  Miss  L.  T.  MOSES,  Normal  School. 
Detroit,  Mich. 

"  I  am  much  pleased  with  it  and  have  had  enthusiastic  praise 
for  it  from  all  the  teachers  to  whom  I  have  shown  it.  It  seems  to 
me  to  be  scientific,  artistic,  and  convenient  to  a  marked  degree. 
The  maps  are  a  perfect  joy  to  any  teacher  who  has  been  using 
the  complicated  affairs  given  in  most  books  of  the  kind." 

—  AGNES  McRAE. 
De  Kalb,  111. 

"I  have  just  finished  examining  the  first  book  of  Tarr  and 
McMurry's  Geographies.  I  have  read  the  book  with  care  from 
cover  to  cover.  To  say  that  I  am  pleased  with  it  is  expressing 
it  mildly.  It  seems  to  me  just  what  a  geography  should  be.  It  is 
correctly  conceived  and  admirably  executed.  The  subject  is  ap- 
proached from  the  right  direction  and  is  developed  in  the  right 
proportions.  And  those  maps  —  how  could  they  be  any  better? 
Surely  authors  and  publishers  have  achieved  a  triumph  in  text- 
book making.  I  shall  watch  with  interest  for  the  appearance  of 
the  other  two  volumes."— Professor  EDWARD  C.  PAGE,  Northern 
Illinois  State  Normal  School. 

Asbury  Park,  N.J. 

"I  do  not  hesitate  at  all  to  say  that  I  think  the  Tarr  and 
McMurry's  Geography  the  best  in  the  market." 

—  F.  S.  SHEPARD,  Superintendent  of  Schools. 
Ithaca,  N.Y. 

"  I  am  immensely  pleased  with  Tarr  and  McMurry's  Geography." 
—  CHARLES  DE  GARMO,  Professor  of  Pedagogy,  Cornell  University. 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

EDUCATION  -  PSYCHOLOGY 
LIBRARY 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


7  DAY  USE  DURING 

SUMMER  SESSIONS 

JUN  1  o  1984 

LD  21A-15m-4,'63 
(D6471slO)476 


General  Library 

University  of  California 

Berkeley 


543149 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


